LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


THE  AMERICAN  PRACTICE 

OF 

GAS  PIPING  AND  GAS  LIGHTING 
IN  BUILDINGS 


THE   AMERICAN   PRACTICE 

OF 

GAS  PIPING  AND  GAS  LIGHTING 
IN  BUILDINGS 


BY 

WM.  PAUL   GERHARD,  C.E. 

CONSULTING     ENGINEER     TOR    HYDRAULIC     AND     SANITARY     WORKS, 

MEMBER     AMERICAN     SOCIETY     MECHANICAL     ENGINEERS, 

AMERICAN  PUBLIC    HEALTH    ASSOCIATION,  ETC., 

CORRESPONDING      MEMBER       AMERICAN 

INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS.  ETC. 


Published    by  the 

McGraw-Hill    Book.  Company 


to  the  Book  Departments  of  the 

McGraw  Publishing  Company  Hill  Publishing"  Company 

Publishers   of  Books  for 

Electrical  World  The  Eno^neering  and  Mining  Journal 

The  Engineering  Record  Power  and  The  Engineer 

Electric  Railway  Journal  American   Machinist 


II11I11UJ- 


THE   AMERICAN   PRACTICE 

OF 

GAS  PIPING  AND  GAS  LIGHTING 
IN  BUILDINGS 


BY 

WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  C.E. 

CONSULTING     ENGINEER     FOR    HYDRAULIC     AND     SANITARY     WORKS, 

MEMBER     AMERICAN     SOCIETY     MECHANICAL     ENGINEERS, 

AMERICAN  PUBLIC    HEALTH    ASSOCIATION,  ETC., 

CORRESPONDING      MEMBER       AMERICAN 

INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS,  ETC. 


UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 
McGRAW    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

1908 


COPYKIGHTED,  1908, 

BY   THE 

MCGKAW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
NEW   YORK 


PEEFACE 


IN  preparing  this  book  my  object  was  not  to  treat  of  the 
various  processes  of  manufacture  and  distribution  of  illuminat- 
ing gas,  nor  to  discuss  the  lighting  of  public  streets,  alleys, 
parks  and  squares. 

It  should  be  distinctly  understood  by  the  reader  that  I  take 
up  the  subject  of  gas  installation  and  gas  utilization  practi- 
cally at  the  point  where  it  reaches  the  consumers7  premises. 
I  endeavor  to  explain  how  gas-fitting  should  be  done  so  that 
gas  may  be  advantageously  employed  in  the  illumination  of 
the  interior  of  buildings.  Incidentally,  other  uses  of  gas  are 
mentioned  and  their  advantages  pointed  out. 

To  give  a  detailed  technical  instruction  regarding  the  practical 
work  and  the  mechanical  details  of  the  gas-fitter's  work  in  the 
piping  of  buildings  was  beyond  the  scope  of  the  book.  Several 
smaller  handbooks,  mentioned  in  the  bibliography,  are  avail- 
able, which  cover  the  ground  fairly.  In  compiling  the  bibli- 
ography (Chap.  XXVII)  the  author  arranged  the  literature,  as 
far  as  dates  were  available,  by  the  year  of  publication. 

The  book  is  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  and  enlightenment  of 
the  gas  consumer  and  the  householder.  However,  it  will  also 
be  found  useful  by  architects,  engineers,  builders,  and  building 
superintendents  to  enable  them  to  acquire  a  better  knowledge 
as  to  how  to  introduce,  distribute,  and  utilize  gas  in  buildings. 
It  should  also  be  of  value  and  interest  to  gas  companies  and 
superintendents  of  gas  distribution  service. 

The  author  is  under  many  obligations  to  Mr.  Otis  Allen 
Kenyon,  M.E.,  for  valuable  suggestions,  as  well  as  for  his  criti- 
cal revision  of  the  manuscript.  He  also  desires  to  acknowledge 
assistance  received  from  Norman  P.  Gerhard  in  preparing  the 
bibliography,  from  Hans  W.  Gerhard  in  making  the  alphabetical 
index,  and  from  Mr.  R.  N.  Hart  in  careful  proofreading. 

THE  AUTHOR. 
NEW  YORK  CITY,  January,  1908. 


202027 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


PREFACE      

I.    PREJUDICES  AGAINST  THE  USE  OF  GAS 1 

N  II.   POPULAR  FALLACIES  ABOUT  GAS 8 

III.  ADVANTAGES  OF  GAS  AS  AN  ILLUMINANT 12 

IV.  ADVANTAGES  OF  GAS  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  HEAT  AND  POWER       16 
V.   THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  GAS  PIPING  IN  BUILDINGS  ...  22 

VI.    SPECIFICATION   FOR   GAS    PIPING   FOR  COAL  OR   WATER  "*" 

GAS 41 

VII.   RULES,   TABLES  AND  REGULATIONS  OF  GAS  COMPANIES 

AND  OF  BUILDING  DEPARTMENTS 44 

VIII.    PIPING  FOR  NATURAL  GAS 81 

IX.   PIPING 'FOR  AIR  GAS  OR  GASOLINE  MACHINE  GAS  ...  87 

X.  PIPING  FOR  ACETYLENE  GAS 97 

^         XI.   THE  TESTING  OF  GAS  PIPES     .  - 102 

XII.   GAS-LIGHT  ILLUMINATION 108V- 

XIII.   GAS  BURNERS Ill 

Y    XIV.   GAS-PRESSURE  REGULATION 126 

XV.   GAS  GLOBES  AND  GLOBE  HOLDERS 137 

XVI.    GAS  FIXTURES 142y 

GAS  METERS  AND  GAS-METER  STORIES 148 

THE  ILLUMINATION  OF  INTERIORS  WITH  GAS  LIGHTS  .    .  170 

XIX.   THE  LIGHTING  OF  COUNTRY  HOUSES 179x 

,  XX.   THE    RELATIONS    BETWEEN    GAS    COMPANIES    AND    GAS 

CONSUMERS 198 

.  XXI.   PRACTICAL  HINTS  FOR  GAS  CONSUMERS 207 

.  XXII.   SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  THE  GAS  SUPPLY 222 

XXIIIT  ACCIDENTS  WITH  GAS 229 

XXFV/ DANGERS  TO  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  FROM  ILLUMINATING 

AND  FUEL  GAS 237 

XXV.*"  DANGERS  OF  GAS  LEAKAGE  (continued) 256 

XXVI.   HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  PROGRESS 

OF  THE  GAS  INDUSTRY 263, 

XXVII.   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS  LIGHTING 279  - 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  295 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE  AMEEICAN  PKACTICE  OF  GAS  PIPING 
AND  GAS  LIGHTING  IN  BUILDINGS 


CHAPTER  I. 

PREJUDICES  AGAINST  THE  USE  OF  GAS. 

IN  the  following  pages  the  term  "gas"  is  used  to  designate  an 
aeriform  mixture,  used  either  as  an  illuminant  or  as  a  fuel. 
When  used  for  lighting,  gas  is  called  illuminating  or  lighting  gas, 
and  when  used  for  heating,  cooking,  or  power  purposes  it  is 
called  fuel  gas.  Gas  used  for  illumination  is  largely  hydrogen 
enriched  by  carbon. 

We  also  distinguish  between  natural  or  rock  gas  and  artificial 
or  manufactured  gas,  the  former  being  found  hi  nature  beneath 
the  earth's  surface  and  brought  up  by  means  of  bored  wells,  the 
latter  being  gas  manufactured  in  industrial  establishments  or 
gas  works,  or  in  special  private  gas  plants  or  apparatus.  The 
bulk  of  manufactured  illuminating  gas  is  either  coal  gas,  the 
product  of  the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  in  closed  retorts, 
to  which  a  high  degree  of  heat  is  applied,  or  else  it  is  water  gas, 
made  more  cheaply  than  coal  gas  by  passing  steam  over  glowing 
coals,  and  afterwards  enriching  it  with  vapors  of  oil  or  naphtha 
to  make  it  luminous.  Very  little  oil  gas  is  made  from  hydro- 
carbon oils.  Water  gas  has  considerably  less  heating  power 
than  coal  gas,  but  in  all  other  respects  both  kinds  of  gas,  sup- 
plied from  a  central  station  through  a  system  of  distributing 
pipes,  and  brought  by  service  pipes  into  the  houses  of  the  con- 
sumers, are  well  adapted  for  light,  heat  and  power. 

Air  gas  is  a  special  gas,  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  lighting 
of  country  houses,  and  made  by  forcing  common  air  to  pass  over 
gasoline  or  other  fluid  hydrocarbons,  the  air  becoming  saturated 
with  the  vapors  of  the  fluid*  Acetylene  gas  is  another  special 
gas  discovered,  more  recently,  and  obtained  by  the  contact  of 
calcium  carbide  with  water.. 

1 


! 


2  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Sometimes  the  term  "gas"  is  used  to  designate  a  gas  lamp,  a 
gas  jet  or  a  gas  burner,  or  the  light  produced  by  burning  gas. 

A  rather  unusual,  but  witty,  definition  of  "gas"  is  the  follow- 
ing, which  I  quote  from  the  "Silly  Cyclopaedia":  agas — a  sub- 
stance we  make  light  of  until  the  bill  comes  in." 

The  industry  of  manufacturing  illuminating  and  fuel  gas 
celebrated  the  anniversary  of  its  first  century  in  1892,  for  it  was 
in  1792  that  Thomas  Murdock,  in  England,  first  illuminated  his 
house  with  gas. 

Although  the  advent  of  the  electric  incandescent  lamp,  in 
1880,  threatened  at  first  to  revolutionize  completely  the  methods 
of  both  interior  and  street  illumination,  the  gas-lighting  industry 
has  continued  to  flourish  and  to  show  during  the  past  25  years 
an  ever-increasing  consumption  of  gas  for  lighting,  heating  and 
power  purposes.  The  growth  has  been  particularly  noticeable 
in  the  so-called  "day  consumption"  of  gas,  it 'being  at  present 
used  to  a  large  extent  in  gas  heating  and  gas  cooking  appliances, 
and  also  for  power  purposes,  in  gas  motors  and  engines. 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  improvements,  introduced  in 
gas  appliances  and  in  gas  illuminants,  there  are  still  found,  in 
certain  quarters,  ill-conceived  and  old-fashioned  prejudices  in 
opposition  to  the  use  of  gas,  and  it  is  with  a  view  of  doing  away 
with  these,  and  of  clearing  up  misconceptions  and  exaggerated 
or  erroneous  statements  that  this  brief  chapter  is  introduced. 
The  many  popular  fallacies  regarding  gas  and  its  uses  will  be 
taken  up  and  discussed  in  Chapter  II. 

We  have  become  so  accustomed  to  the  benefits  derived  from 
the  introduction  and  use  of  gas  in  our  dwellings,  and  from  the 
not  less  important  advantages  due  to  the  lighting  of  our  streets, 
squares,  and  parks  with  gas  or  electricity,  that  we  can  scarcely 
believe  it  possible  that  a  newspaper  should  have  appeared  in 
Germany  in  the  year  1819,  in  which  the  following,  to  say  the  least, 
ludicrous,  objections  against  street  lighting  were  brought  forth. 

The  writer  of  the  article  denounced  the  artificial  illumination 
of  streets  after  sunset  because  "God  had  decreed  that  darkness 
should  follow  light,  and  mortals  had  no  right  to  turn  night  into 
day."  He  declared  that  people  did  not  require  any  light  at 
night  outside  of  their  houses,  and  argued  that  the  lighting  of 
street  lamps  imposed  an  unnecessary  tax  upon  the  people.  He 
also  claimed  that  the  fumes  of  oil  lamps  or  of  gas  poison  the  air  ( !) 


Prejudices  against  the  Use  of  Gas  3 

and  affect  the  health  of  delicate  persons,  while  public  lighting 
encourages  healthy  persons  to  stay  out  of  doors  after  dark  and 
thereby  to  catch  cold.  Street  lighting,  in  his  judgment,  would 
lower  the  standard  of  morality  and  remove  the  fear  of  darkness 
which  alone  prevents  weak-minded  individuals  from  committing 
crimes.  The  lighting  of  streets  would  make  robbers  bold  and 
cause  horses  to  shy  (!).  It  would  also  reduce  patriotism  as 
evinced  in  special  night  illumination  during  public  festivals, 
because  if  streets  wrere  lighted  every  night,  these  special  functions 
would  lose  their  effect. 

We  can,  possibly,  pardon  a  man  for  foolishly  decrying  in  the 
above  words  a  new  industry,  at  a  time  when  it  was  first  being 
introduced.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  people  who,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twentieth  century,  still  adhere  to  notions  like  the, 
following :  \1 

" Illuminating  gas  is  poisonous,  and  hence  dangerous  to  use; 
it  is  explosive  and  thereby  becomes  the  cause  of  fires;  the  com- 
bustion of  gas  produces  irritating  and  unhealthy  vapors ;  "  or  of 
those  who  cry  out  that  "gas  is  too  expensive  to  use,"  or  those 
who  do  not  care  to  introduce  gas  "  because  it  will  soon  be  super- 
seded, anyhow,  by  electricity?" 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  take  up  briefly  some  of  the  prejudices 
mentioned,  in  order  to  analyse  them  and  to  point  out  why  the 
statements  made  are  erroneous  and  misleading. 

There  are  some  persons  who  claim  that  very  soon  electric 
lighting  will  supersede  gas  entirely,  and  who,  for  this  reason, 
are  opposed  to  the  introduction  of  gas  into  buildings,  at  least 
for  illuminating  purposes.  Persons  who  argue  in  this  way  are 
entirely  unfamiliar  with  the  true  facts,  which  they  could  easily 
establish  by  a  diligent  research,  namely,  that  since  the  intro- 
duction of  electric  lighting  the  use  of  gas  has  made  rapid  strides 
forward.  Nearly  all  gas  works  show  a  large  increase  in  gas  con- 
sumption, and  many  instances  are  named  where  electric  incan- 
descent lamps  have  been  replaced  by  the  improved  forms  of 
incandescent  gas  lamps.  Even  in  the  lighting  of  railroad  cars, 
no  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years  in  the  use  of  electric 
lamps,  whereas,  only  recently,  successful  experiments  were  made 
in  lighting  passenger  cars  with  the  Pintsch  gas,  burned  in  neat- 
looking,  inverted,  incandescent  mantle  burners. 

Many  other  facts  could  be  cited  to  show  that  there  are  no 
indications  whatever  that  electricity  will  replace  gas  entirely. 


4  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

A  number  of  important  inventions  in  the  gas  industry  are  re- 
corded each  year,  and  the  old  question :  electricity  or  gas  ?  is  no 
longer  of  importance,  for  both  forms  of  lighting  have  their  merits, 
advantages  and  uses  in  special  cases,  and  there  is  certainly  room 
for  further  improvements  in  both  fields  of  illumination. 

Contrary  to  recent  opinions  held  by  some  architects,  the 
author  can  give  no  better  advice  to  those  who  are  building  resi- 
dences, than  to  have  their  houses  both  piped  for  gas  and  wired 
for  electricity.  Many  instances  are  on  record  where  the  electric 
lighting  has  failed  temporarily,  for  local  reasons,  or  because  the 
electric  lighting  plant  or  works  were,  for  a  time,  put  out  of 
commission.  It  is  at  such  times  that  the  fact  that  gas  is  avail- 
able will  be  most  appreciated. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  persons  who  have  no  real  objection 
to  the  use  of  gas,  but  who  fondly  maintain  the  notion  that  "gas 
is  an  expensive  luxury." 

There  was  a  time  when  gas  did  cost  more  than  other  materials 
for  illumination,  such  as  oil  or  kerosene,  but  that  time  has  long 
gone  by,  and  the  price  of  gas  has  gradually  come  down,  so  much 
so  that  at  the  present  time  residents  in  many  cities  are  charged 
less  than  one  dollar  per  thousand  cubic  feet  of  gas  consumed. 

It  is  true  that  gas  is  a  luxury,  if  burned  in  wasteful  burner 
tips;  and  it  is  also  a  fact  that  many  persons  using  gas  in  their 
cooking  ranges  have  large  gas  bills,  because  the  cook  is  indifferent 
as  regards  turning  off  the  gas  the  moment  it  is  no  longer  wanted. 
But  such  objections  cannot  be  considered  valid,  because  they 
can  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  little  care  or  judgment  and  by 
proper  instruction.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  consumers  can  obtain  for  less  money  than  formerly  a  very 
much  higher  degree  of  illumination,  as,  for  instance,  by  using  the 
modern  forms  of  incandescent  gas  burners,  all  of  which  are  much 
more  economical  in  gas  consumption  than  the  flat-flame  burners. 

Others  again  are  afraid  to  use  gas  for  illumination  or  other 
purposes  because  "the  products  of  combustion  of  gas  are  un- 
healthy." The  chief  products  of  combustion  of  illuminating 
gas,  whether  coal  oi4  water  gas,  are  carbonic  acid  and  water 
vapor.  If  gas  is  properly  purified  at  the  works  and  burned  in 
the  houses  under  proper  conditions,  only  a  trifling  amount  of 
deleterious  compounds  escapes  into  the  air  of  the  rooms. 

The  objection  raised  can  certainly  not  be  restricted  to  gas 
illumination,  for  it  is  well  known  that  other  forms  of  illumiriants, 


Prejudices  against  the  Use  of.  Gas  5 

such  as  kerosene  or  oil  lamps  and  candles,  contaminate  the  air  to 
an  even  greater  extent.  Where  many  people  congregate  to- 
gether, as  in  theaters  or  other  halls  of  assembly,  the  air  is  polluted 
much  more  by  the  products  of  respiration  and  by  exudations 
from  the  skin  than  by  the  lighting  flames.  Proper  and  sufficient 
ventilation  should,  of  course,  be  provided  in  all  cases,  and  it 
may  be  said  that  while  the  electric  light  doubtless  exercises  a 
less  deteriorating  influence  on  the  air  of  closed  rooms,  the  gas 
flames,  on  the  other  hand,  assist  in  their  natural  ventilation. 

Scientific  authorities  and  noted  hygienists  seem  to  agree  that 
one  has  little  to  fear  from  the  use  of  gas  for  illumination,  and 
the  fact  is  worth  pointing  out  that  the  improved  burners,  like 
the  Welsbach  incandescent  and  others,  create  a  very  much 
smaller  amount  of  pollution,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  burn 
less  gas  for  a  same  amount  of  illumination  than  the  large  flat- 
flame  burners. 

Still  other  people,  who  do  not  deny  that  gas  offers  many  ad- 
vantages, entertain  and  cling  to  the  prejudice  that  "illuminating 
gas  is  dangerous  to  life  because  it  is  poisonous."  But  when  gas 
is  introduced  into  dwellings  it  is  conveyed  in  tightly  jointed 
pipes  and  fixtures.  Both  piping  and  fixtures  can  and  should  be 
made  perfectly  gas-tight.  No  doubt  this  is  not  always  the  case, 
and  leaks  frequently  exist,  due  to  carelessness  and  indifference. 
But  granting  that  escapes  and  leakage  of  gas  are  possible,  the 
remedy  is  a  simple  one  and  easily  applied. 

Gas  only  becomes  dangerous  to  life  when  it  escapes  unburned, 
and  in  most  cases  gas  leaks  are  readily  noticeable,  owing  to  the 
odor  of  the  gas.  There  is  somewhat  more  danger  where  water  gas 
is  distributed  to  the  consumer,  owing  to  its  much  higher  per- 
centage of  carbon  monoxide,  yet  statistics  in  countries  where 
coal  stoves  are  much  used  show  that  more  deaths  by  asphyxia- 
tion occur  through  defective  stoves,  or  by  the  wrong  use  of  the 
damper  in  the  stove  flue,  than  from  gas  leaks.  A  German 
writer  points  out  that  many  poisons  are  used  without  hesitation 
in  workshops  or  industrial  establishments,  and  even  in  the 
household,  also  that  many  of  our  articles  of  daily  food  contain 
poison,  also  that  carbonic  oxide  is  generated  in  considerable 
quantity  in  tobacco  smoking,  yet  nobody  would  think  of  giving 
up  on  that  account  the  things  which  contribute  to  our  comfort. 
Many  deaths  from  electricity  occur,  owing  to  accidental  contact 
with  apparatus  or  wiring  carrying  a  high  voltage,  yet  this 


6  Gas^  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

fact  is  never  cited  as  a  valid  objection  against  the  use  of 
electricity. 

The  danger  from  gas  leakage  and  the  proper  precautions  and 
remedies  to  be  applied  will  be  discussed  in  later  chapters,  and  it 
may  suffice  here  to  reiterate  the  statement  that  the  objection 
quoted  is  not  an  important  one,  and  certainly  should  not  deter 
people  from  using  gas  in  the  household. 

The  last  objection  to  gas  to  be  mentioned  comes  from  persons 
who  claim  that  it  is  " explosive,"  and  frequently  causes  fires. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  coal  gas  only  becomes  explosive  when 
mixed  with  air  in  a  proportion  of  not  less  than  4,  nor  more  than 
13,  parts  of  air  to  one  of  gas.  As  a  rule,  accidental  escapes  of 
gas  are  noticed  long  before  the  mixture  of  air  and  gas  become 
'explosive.  Then,  again,  gas  requires  air  in  order  to  burn,  and 
when  a  gas  jet  is  lit  the  gas  burns  only  at  the  point  where  it 
issues  and  not  in  the  pipes.  A  large  gasometer,  rilled  with  gas, 
might  be  struck  by  lightning,  yet,  unless  it  be  rent  open  to  permit 
the  gas  to  escape  and  then  to  become  lighted,  nothing  serious 
would  happen. 

The  danger  from  fire,  incident  to  the  use  of  gas,  is  no  greater 
than  that  attaching  to  the  use  of  other  illuminants  with  open 
flames.  In  fact,  reliable  fire  statistics  confirm  the  view  that 
more  fires  or  explosions  are  due  to  the  use  of  petroleum  or  alcohol 
lamps  than  to  gas. 

In  a  recent  number  of  Cassier's  Magazine,  Mr.  Washington 
Devereux,  inspector  for  the  Philadelphia  Fire  Underwriters' 
Association,  writing  on  "Fire  Hazards  and  how  to  Avoid  Them," 
relates  that  the  Grocers'  Exchange  of  London,  England,  "has 
offered  a  prize  of  £120  sterling,  which  for  the  last  three  years 
has  gone  begging.  It  is  to  go  to  the  inventor  of  the  best-con- 
structed safety  lamp  in  which  mineral  oil  can  be  burned,  the 
chief  merit  of  which  must  be  absolute  safety.  The  reason  for 
this  prize  offer  is  the  fact  that  the  number  of  accidents  resulting 
from  the  upsetting  of  mineral  oil  lamps  in  the  United  Kingdom 
has  been  enormous,  and  thousands  of  deaths  have  been  caused 
by  such  accidents.  In  London  alone,  there  were,  in  1901,  three 
thousand  accidents,  more  or  less  serious,  due  to  defective  mineral- 
oil-burning  lamps,  stoves  and  lanterns." 

The  use  of  gas  is  not  in  any  way  extra  hazardous,  and  the 
notion  that  electric  lighting  is  very  much  safer  in  this  respect  is 
erroneous.  Many  fire  insurance  companies,  on  the  contrary, 


Prejudices  against  the  Use  of  Gas  7 

regard  the  use  of  gas  as  safer  than  that  of  electricity.  Some 
underwriters  hold  the  view  that  no  rebates  or  reductions  should 
be  given  on  policies  for  buildings  illuminated  by  electricity,  and 
that  the  relative  danger  to  property  and  life  is  not  less  with 
electricity  than  with  gas. 

As  an  example,  I  quote  the  following  enumeration  of  fatal 
accidents  which  took  place  in  Germany  in  1905:  gas  explosions 
killed  9  persons;  electricity  killed  15  persons;  explosions  of 
kerosene  lamps,  250  persons. 

In  this  connection  it  might  be  mentioned  that  in  five  years 
(from  1900  to  1905)  not  less  than  21  fires  occurred  in  Berlin 
theaters,  out  of  a  total  of  66  fires,  which  were  caused  by  short- 
circuits  in  the  electric  wiring  installation;  hence  there  seems  to 
be  some  reason  for  doubting  the  greater  safety  of  theaters,  in 
which  gas  lighting  is  excluded  by  building  department  regula- 
tions. 

While  these  remarks  are  not  intended  to  undervalue  the 
dangers  incidental  to  the  use  of  gas  as  an  illuminant,  they  are 
given  to  point  out  the  fact,  that  illuminating  gas  is  not  extra 
hazardous,  if  proper  care  and  judgment  are  used  in  its  manage- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  II. 

POPULAR  FALLACIES  ABOUT  GAS. 

HAVING  in  the  preceding  chapter  referred  to  some  of  the 
common  prejudices  against  gas  lighting  and  the  use  of  gas  in 
buildings,  I  will  now  mention  a  few  of  the  popular  misconcep- 
tions, which  seem  to  arise  largely  from  ignorance  or  want  of 
knowledge. 

Among  the  more  common  fallacies  are  the  following : 
a.  That  gas  companies  mix  air  with  the  gas  to  increase  its 
volume.  This  admixture  of  air  is  never  attempted,  because  it 
would  obviously  result  in  a  serious  deterioration  of  the  illuminat- 
ing power  of  gas,  for  even  a  1  per  cent  admixture  of  air  reduces 
the  candle-power  of  gas  by  6  per  cent,  and  a  10  per  cent  admix- 
ture reduces  the  same  by  67  per  cent.  Gas  companies  are  re- 
quired by  law  to  make  and  furnish  illuminating  gas  of  a  specific 
candle-power,  and  the  weekly  tests  of  the  gas  examiners  show 
that  the  quality  of  the  gas  rarely  falls  below  this  standard,  as  it 
certainly  would  if  air  were  mixed  with  the  gas.  It  is  a  fact, 
however,  not  so  well  known,  that  the  quality  of  gas  is  variable 
with  atmospheric  changes.  For  instance,  a  fall  in  the  barometer 
reduces  the  brilliancy  of  lighting  by  5  per  cent  for  every  inch  of 
fall.  According  to  Dr.  Lethe  by,  "in  London  the  difference  in 
the  value  of  the  light  when  the  barometer  is  31  inches  as  com- 
pared with  what  it  is  at  28  inches  is  fully  25  per  cent,  and  this, 
no  doubt,  accounts  for  many  of  the  complaints  of  'bad  light '  in 
November,  when  the  barometer  is  usually  very  low."  The 
quality  of  the  light  is  likewise  said  to  be  variable  with  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  air. 

f  6.  That  gas  companies  blow  or  pump  air  from  the  works  into 
the  gas  mains  during  the  day,  to  make  the  meter  go  around  and 
to  make  the  index  register.  This  is  sheer  nonsense,  for  not  only 
can  the  consumer  at  any  time  by  lighting  a  burner  convince  him- 
self that  the  pipes  contain  illuminating  gas  and  not  air,  but  where 
no  gas  is  burnt  and  the  house  pipes  are  tight,  the  consumer,  by 

8 


Popular  Fallacies  about  Gas  9 

watching  the  small  hand  of  the  meter  during  the  day,  will  find 
that  it  remains  stationary. 

c.  That  large  gas  meters  lead  to  an  increase  in  the  gas  bills, 
and  that  large  gas  pipes  in  houses,  as  advocated  by  gas  engi- 
neers, increase  the  consumption,  and  therefore  the  monthly  gas 
bills,  both  of  which  beliefs,  of  course,  are  erroneous,  as  the  gas 
consumption  depends  only  upon  the  number  and  size  of  burners 
in  use,  and  upon  the  gas  pressure,  but  not  upon  the  size  of  the 
conduit  or  pipe  conveying  the  gas  to  the  burner,  and  not  upon 
the  capacity  of  the  instrument  measuring  the  gas.     No  one 
having  large  pipes  and  a  large  gas  meter  in  his  house  need  burn 
more  gas  than  he  wishes  to,  and  he  can  control  this  gas  con- 
sumption perfectly. 

d.  That  the  gas  company  willfully  puts  on  more  pressure  at 
the  works  at  night  in  order  to  make  the  gas  meters  in  the  con- 
sumers' dwellings  go  around  faster.     While  the  fact  is  true  that 
the  pressure  is  increased  in  the  early  part  of  the  evening,  .when  a 
general  lighting  up  begins,  the  gas  company  is  obliged  to  do  this 
to  supply  the  distant  consumers  and  those  located  in  low-level 
districts.    The  increased  pressure  causes  increased  leakage  of  gas 
at  the  joints  of  the  street  mains,  and  also  leads  to  increased 
consumption  at  the  street  lamps  with  ungoverned  burners,  for 
which  the  companies,  as  a  rule,  receive  a  fixed  annual  sum  by 
the  municipality,  hence  it  may  be  accepted  without  question 
that  the  gas  companies  would  not  increase  the  pressure  if  it 
were  not  quite  necessary  to  do  so. 

e.  That  large  burners  lead  to  a  waste  of  gas,  and  that  where 
gas  companies  offer  to  put  better,  or  larger  burners  on  the  fixtures 
of  the  consumer  they  do  this,  not  for  the  sake  of  giving  a  better 
light,  but  in  order  to  increase  the  gas  consumption.      Careful 
observation  shows  that  one  large  burner  gives,   with  less  con- 
sumption of  gas,  a  better  light  than  two   small    ones,  which 
demonstrates  the  fallacy  of  the  above  misconception. 

/.  That  gas  vitiates  the  atmosphere  more  and  creates  more 
heat  than  either  candles  or  oil  lamps,  whereas  for  the  same 
amount  of  illumination  the  opposite  is  true. 

g.  That  gas  is  more  dangerous  as  regards  accidents,  such  as 
fire,  explosions,  escape  or  leaks  of  gas  causing  asphyxia,  than 
other  illuminants,  whereas  the  statistics  of  fire  underwriters  and 
the  records  of  hospitals  show  more  fires  and  accidents  caused  by 
lamp  explosions  than  by  gas. 


10  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

h.  That  if  in  one  house,  owing,  perhaps,  to  insufficient  size  of 
the  gas  service  or  of  the  house  pipes,  the  pressure  is  low  and  the 
light  accordingly  poor,  the  gas  company  should  be  able  to 
remedy  this  by  giving  to  this  consumer  more  pressure,  if  he 
desires  it,  than  to  the  neighboring  houses,  which  is  obviously 
impossible. 

i.  That  gas  pipes  may  burst  from  the  inside  gas  pressure, 
which  mistaken  idea  possibly  arose  at  the  time  when  natural 
gas  was  first  supplied  to  towns  under  sometimes  very  heavy 
pressure.  With  gas  as  supplied  and  distributed  from  gas  works, 
the  pressure  is,  comparatively  speaking,  very  low,  fluctuating 
from  10/10  to  40/10  inch  of  water  pressure,*  and  there  is  not  the 
slightest  reason  for  fearing  that  the  gas  pipes  may  burst. 

k.  That  inasmuch  as  the  manufactured  gas  emits  a  strong  and 
unpleasant  odor,  the  same  odor  must  exist  and  become  dissemi- 
nated in  the  rooms,  when  gas  is  burning.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
sufficiently  well  established  by  experience,  that  properly  purified 
gas,  if  properly  burnt,  gives  off  no  obnoxious  odors. 

I.  That  gas  may,  and  sometimes  does,  burn  inside  of  the  gas 
pipes.  I  have  met  well  educated  and  otherwise  intelligent 
people,  who  displayed  their  utter  ignorance  on  the  subject  by 
making  such  statements,  thus  reminding  me  of  the  people,  in  the 
early  days  of  gas  lighting,  of  whom  we  are  told  that  they  put  on 
gloves  before  touching  the  gas  pipes,  and  of  architects  who  re- 
quired in  their  specifications  "gas  pipes,  to  be  carried  at  a  safe 
distance  from  all  woodwork."  The  fact  is,  of  course,  that  illumi- 
nating gas  does  not  burn  while  confined  in  a  vessel  or  in  pipes 
and  fittings  conveying  the  same,  because  air  is  necessary  in  all 
cases  for  combustion  to  take  place. 

m.  That  manufacturers  of  gas  meters  and  gas  companies 
work  hand  in  hand  to  defraud  the  consumer,  whereas  the  fact 
is  that  gas  meters  are  measuring  machines  constructed  with 
accuracy  and  on  scientific  principles,  by  responsible  manufac- 
turers, and  that  before  use  all  meters  are  tested  as  to  their 
accuracy  by  special  State  meter  inspectors.  Therefore,  when- 
ever a  consumer  believes  his  meter  to  be  wrong,  he  may 
have  it  tested,  exchanged,  or  repaired  by  notifying  the  gas 
company. 

n.  That  gas  bills  are  made  out  regardless  of  the  amount  of  gas 

*  Gas  pressure  is  always  expressed  in  tenths  of  inches  of  water  pressure. 

W.  P.  G. 


Popular  Fallacies  about  Gas  11 

consumed,  which  popular  error  has  been  already  alluded  to  hi 
speaking  of  the  prejudices  of  consumers. 

o.  A  popular  fallacy,  which  is  met  with  occasionally,  is  that 
the  gas,  after  once  having  flowed  through,  and  been  registered  on 
the  index  of  the  consumers'  meter,  may  pass  back  into  the  street 
supply  pipes,  so  that  gas  companies  will  benefit  by  a  second 
registration  of  the  same  volume  of  gas.  A  slight  study  of  the 
construction  of  the  gas  meter  (see  Chapter  XVII)  will  show  the 
impossibility  of  this  happening. 

p.  Another  erroneous  impression,  which  quite  frequently  pre- 
vails among  gas  consumers,  is  that  if  the  size  of  the  gas  pipes 
is  made  larger  than  is  common  in  most  houses,  there  will  neces- 
sarily be  an  excessive  pressure  and  a  correspondingly  increased 
gas  consumption.  Practically,  however,  the  reverse  is  the  case, 
for  a  higher  pressure  is  required  to  supply  the  gas  burners  or  the 
gas  cooking  ranges  with  sufficient  gas  where  the  pipes  are  made 
very  small;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pressure  can  be  more 
readily  regulated  by  the  consumer,  where  the  gas  pipes  are  of  a 
good  size. 

Much  can,  doubtless,  be  done  to  remove  these  and  similar 
popular  fallacies  by  giving  to  gas  consumers  proper  explanations. 
The  gas  companies  have  constant  opportunities  to  give  to  their 
customers  information  and  advice  upon  many  of  the  matters 
touched  upon  in  this  chapter,  and  it  is  to  their  interest  to  avail 
themselves  of  them. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   GAS   AS   AN   ILLUMINANT. 

IN  this  chapter,  I  shall  consider  only  the  many  advantages  of 
gas  as  a  source  of  light,  leaving  the  consideration  of  the  use  of 
gaseous  fuel,  as  compared  with  liquid  and  solid  fuel  materials,  for 
heat  and  power,  for  the  next  chapter. 

To  some  it  may  seem  superfluous,  at  this  day,  to  dwell  upon  the 
advantages  of  gas  lighting  as  compared  with  other  illuminants, 
and  particularly  so  when  it  must  be  admitted  that  electric 
lighting  is,  in  some  important  respects,  superior.  Electric 
energy,  however,  is  as  yet  far  from  being  a  cheap  source  of 
illumination;  it  certainly  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  a  source  of 
light  adapted  to  the  means  of  the  bulk  of  the  general  public,  and 
it  must  be  said  that,  notwithstanding  many  recent  improve- 
ments, electric  lighting  is  still  far  from  perfection.  In  the  regu- 
lation of  the  intensity  of  the  flame,  for  instance,  the  gas  has  the 
advantage  over  the  electricity  in  that  it  can  be  readily  adjusted, 
regulated,  increased  or  diminished  at  the  will  of  the  consumer. 
If  we  except  one  special  form  of  electric  incandescent  lamp  (the 
"Hylo"  lamp),  not  universally  used,  this  regulation  cannot  be 
accomplished  in  electric  lighting.* 

But,  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  electric  lamp,  let  us  see 
what  chief  advantages  gas  lighting  offers. 

The  gaseous  form  of  the  illuminant  involves  some  important 
advantages  not  possessed  by  liquid  or  solid  illuminants.  Thus, 
gas  is  readily  conducted  in  pipes  to  any  place  where  it  is  to  be 
used  as  a  source  of  light.  It  becomes  available  in  an  almost 
unlimited  quantity,  this  being  restricted  merely  by  the  size  of 
the  service  pipe.  From  the  service  it  is  easily  distributed  to 
as  many  different  places  or  outlets  as  wanted,  and  its  flow  is 
conveniently  regulated. 

There  are  other  important  considerations  of  convenience 
where  gas  is  used,  such  as  the  avoidance  of  loss  of  time,  the 

*  Since  writing  the  above,  another  device  has  been  introduced,  the  object 
of  which  is  the  regulation  of  the  light  intensity  of  incandescent  lamps.  W.  P.  G. 

12 


Advantages  of  Gas  as  an  Illuminant  13 

labor  or  annoyance  of  purchasing  and  getting  the  materials 
required  for  illumination,  the  candles  or  the  kerosene  oil  and  the 
lamp  wicks;  nor  is  any  trimming  and  cleaning  of  wicks  of  the 
lamps  and  of  lamp  chimneys  required. 

Regarding  the  purchase  of  gas  for  lighting,  it  should  be 
mentioned  that  gas  is  charged  for  at  a  unit  price,  which,  in  recent 
years,  has  been  steadily  decreasing,  so  that  at  the  present  time, 
for  instance,  consumers  in  New  York  obtain  one  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  gas  at  eighty  cents,  whereas  the  market  price  of  good 
lighting  oils  fluctuates  more  or  less.  When  buying  oil  or  candles, 
consumers  pay  in  advance,  as  it  were,  whereas  payment  for  gas 
is  made  after  it  has  been  used.*  The  bills  for  gas  are  made  out 
from  the  records  of  the  gas  meters,  which  are  officially  tested 
measuring  apparatus,  and  even  the  quality  of  gas  is  controlled  at 
municipal  testing  stations,  at  least  so  far  as  the  candlepower  of 
the  gas  furnished  to  consumers  is  concerned. 

Kerosene  oil  may,  in  itself,  be  cheaper  than  gas  but  if  we  add 
to  its  cost  the  breakage  of  lamp  chimneys  and  the  cost  of  trim- 
ming the  lamp  wicks,  and  for  cleaning  and  filling  the  lamps,  gas 
becomes  the  cheaper  illuminant  of  the  two. 

One  great  advantage  lies  in  the  convenience  of  gas  lighting. 
The  gas  flame  is  instantly  lighted,  available  at  all  points  where 
gas  outlets  are  placed,  and  quickly  put  out. 

Gas  burners  are  also  cleaner  than  oil  lamps,  there  is  no  objec- 
tionable smell,  and  less  heat  is  created  and  the  air  is  polluted  by 
products  of  combustion  to  a  lesser  degree  than  where  candles  or 
lamps  are  used. 

Finally,  gas  lighting  involves  less  danger  from  fire  than  illu- 
mination by  oil  lamps,  and  while  the  portability  of  lamps  is 
claimed  by  some  to  be  one  of  their  advantages,  it  also  renders 
them  dangerous  in  use,  as  many  lamp  explosions  prove. 

What  interests  the  consumer  more  than  other  things  is  the 
cost  of  an  illuminant,  and,  as  regards  economy,  gas  lighting,  in 
particular  when  the  modern  incandescent  gas  lamp  is  used,  is 
ahead  of  all  other  modes  of  lighting,  as  the  following  comparison 
shows,  in  which  the  electric-arc  lamp  is  not  included,  as  it  is  not 
well  adapted  for  dwelling-house  illumination. 

The  electric  energy,  if  taken  from  a  central  station,  costs  in 
New  York  at.  present  10  cents  per  kilowatt-hour.  Hence  the 

*  This  statement  does  not  apply  to  gas  burned  in  the  more  recent  prepay- 
ment gas  meters.  W.  P.  G. 


14  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

consumer  obtains,  for  one  dollar,  ten  kilowatt-hours,  and  as  the 
incandescent  electric  lamp  of  16  candle  power  uses  on  an  average 
55  watts,  he  can,  for  the  expenditure  of  one  dollar,  burn  the  lamp 

10,000 

— =182  hours. 

55 

Illuminating  gas  costs  at  present  in  New  York  80  cents  per 
1000  cubic  feet,  and  as  a  good  incandescent  gas  lamp,  of  60 
candle  power,  burns  about  3.5  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  the 
consumer  obtains,  for  the  expenditure  of  one  dollar, 

1250  =  357  hours. 
o.5 

Kerosene  oil  costs  at  present  in  New  York  about  14  cents  per 
gallon;  hence,  for  one  dollar  the  consumer  buys  a  little  over  7 
gallons.  A  good  kerosene  lamp  giving  16  candle  power  uses 
per  hour  0.025  gallons,  hence  the  consumer  can  burn  it  for  one 

dollar  7 

-  =  280  hours. 
0.025 

Summarizing  the  above,  a  consumer  obtains  for  one  dollar, 
with  the  incandescent  lamp, 

182  X  16  =  2912  candlepower-hours; 
with  the  kerosene  lamp 

280  X  16  =  4480  candlepower-hours; 
with  the  incandescent  gas  lamp 

357  X  60  =  21,420  candlepower-hours. 

Hence,  he  obtains  the  greatest  amount  of  illumination  by  using 
the  incandescent  gas  lamp,  and  the  least  by  using  the  incandes- 
cent electric  lamp. 

To  put  the  above  in  another  form:  One  electric  incandescent 
lamp  costs  per  hour 

55  X  10 


1000 

one  incandescent  gas  lamp 
3.5  X  80 


0.55  cents; 


1000 
one  kerosene  lamp 

0.025  X  14  =  0.35  cents; 


Advantages  of  Gas  as  an  Illuminant  15 

hence,  the  incandescent  gas  lamp  furnishes  the  highest  illumi- 
nation for  the  least  expenditure  of  money.  In  this  calculation  it 
has  been  assumed  that  the  life  of  the  mantle,  of  the  carbon  fila- 
ment in  the  electric  lamp,  and  of  the  wick  in  the  oil  lamp  are 
about  the  same. 

In  making  the  above  computations,  I  have  followed  closely  the 
statements  made  in  an  excellent  little  German  pamphlet,  entitled 
''Xo  house  without  gas,"  published  and  widely  distributed  by 
the  German  Association  of  Gas  Engineers,  but  the  figures  and 
prices  have  been  adapted  to  current  American  conditions. 

Another  statement,  somewhat  similar  in  results,  is  taken  from 
O'Connor's  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook,  and  is  as  follows: 

The  relative  costs  of  lighting  with  gas  flames,  oil  lamps,  and 
electric  lamps  are  as  305  for  Welsbach  burners,  449-589  for 
petroleum  lamps,  and  1954  for  electric  incandescent  lamps,  and 
according  to  Prof.  D.  E.  Jones,  the  number  of  candlepower- 
hours  which  can  be  provided  at  the  same  cost  for  different  illumi- 
nants  are: 

for  wax  candles  33  hours; 

for  stearine  candles  77  hours; 

for  electric  incandescent  lamp  440  hours; 

for  coal  gas  burnt  in  flat-flame  burner  625  hours; 

for  large  petroleum  lamp  2250  hours; 

for  a  Welsbach  incandescent  burner  2300  hours; 

for  a  Welsbach  incandescent  burner  with  water  gas  4350 

hours. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  in  the  above  comparisons  no  con- 
sideration was  given  to  the  latest  development  of  electric  lamps, 
like  the  Nernst,  Osmium,  Tantalum  and  Tungsten  lamps,  which, 
although  from  8  to  10  times  more  expensive  in  first  cost  than 
ordinary  carbon  filament  lamps,  are  much  more  economical  in 
the  use  of  electric  power  (requiring  about  1.5  as  against  3.5  watts 
per  candle  power),  and  which  also  prove  to  be  more  durable  and 
lasting,  some  of  these  lamps  having  a  life  of  1000  hours  and  more. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   GAS   AS   A   SOURCE   OF   HEAT   AND   POWER. 

WHILE  gas  was  at  first  manufactured  and  used  for  illuminating 
purposes  only,  other  uses  suggested  themselves,  as  soon  as  the 
price  of  gas  was  reduced.  The  greatest  stimulus  to  the  use  of 
gaseous  fuel  for  domestic,  industrial  and  commercial  purposes 
was,  perhaps,  given  by  the  development  of  the  abundant,  and 
therefore  cheap,  natural-gas  supply.  But  the  use  of  manu- 
factured gas  for  cooking,  heating,  and  for  running  engines  became 
likewise  quite  popular,  largely  because  of  its  superior  convenience. 
The  advantages  which  gas  offers  for  lighting  purposes  are  even  to 
a  higher  degree  true  of  the  use  of  gaseous,  as  compared  with  solid 
or  liquid  fuel. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  gaseous  fuel  over  coal  or 
wood  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  fire  may  be  started  instantly  without 
previous  preparation,  and  that  the  fire  almost  immediately  gives 
off  a  high  degree  of  heat,  while  its  intensity  may  be  regulated  at 
will  and  stopped  entirely  in  a  moment  by  the  mere  turning  off  of 
the  stop-cock  or  gas  valve.  It  is  for  this  reason,  chiefly,  that  we 
find  an  ever-increasing  use  of  gas  fuel  in  our  homes,  in  small 
workshops,  and  in  large  industrial  establishments. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  the  advantages  of  gas  for  cooking 
become  specially  manifest  where  cooking  is  done  on  a  large  scale. 
This  may  be  true;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  fact  that  gas  as 
fuel  is  becoming  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  dwellings  of 
people  of  small  means. 

A  gas  cooking  stove  or  range  is  convenient,  time-  and  labor- 
saving;  it  does  away  with  the  various  manipulations  necessary 
where  coal,  wood  or  peat  are  used  as  fuel;  there  is  no  periodical 
stirring  and  shaking  of  the  grate,  and  no  refilling  of  the  fire  pot, 
while  less  attention  is  required  by  the  fire.  The  use  of  gaseous 
fuel  means  a  much  greater  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen,  as  there  is 
no  residue  from  the  fire,  no  ashes,  no  soot,  smoke  or  dirt,  nor  does 
the  chimney  flue  require  cleaning.  Very  little  heat  escapes  into 
the  chimney,  whereas  in  a  coal  range  there  is  not  only  much  heat 

16 


Advantages  of  Gas  for  Heat  and  Power         17 

lost  which  passes  up  the  chimney,  but  the  top  plate  also  radiates  a 
good  deal  of  objectionable  heat,  and  in  this  respect  the  use  of  gas 
cooking  ranges  is  much  appreciated  in  summer  time,  for  the 
kitchen  is  thereby  kept  cooler.  There  is  also  no  trouble  such  as 
is  caused  where  chimneys  smoke  or  do  not  draw  well. 

Add  to  this  the  numerous  other  advantages,  for  instance,  the 
well-observed  fact  that  viands  cooked  by  gas  are  more  palatable 
and  lose  less  in  weight,  that  roasted  meats  retain  more  of  the 
juice;  also  the  fact  that  no  space  is  required  in  the  kitchen  for 
the  coal  scuttle  and  the  kindling  wood,  that  coal  bins  are  not 
wranted  in  the  cellar,  that  there  is  no  purchase,  transportation 
and  storage  of  kitchen  fuel,  and  finally  that  a  gas  range  is  ready 
at  all  times,  day  and  night,  and  requires  only  the  application  of  a 
lighted  match  to  be  put  at  once  in  full  operation.  In  short,  the 
use  of  gas  for  cooking  purposes  is  becoming  more  popular  from 
year  to  year,  and  rightfully  so. 

In  view  of  all  that  has  been  said  above,  it  seems  quite  proper  to 
ask  the  question:  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  cooking  by  gas? 
And  the  only  possible  reply  which  can  be  made  is,  that  it  must  be 
more  costly  than  other  methods,  because  considering  the  heat 
units  obtained  from  coal  as  compared  with  those  from  gas, 
gaseous  fuel  appears  to  be  at  a  disadvantage. 

A  ton  of  coal  of  average  quality  and  costing  $6.25  contains 
about 

2000  X  12,000  =  24,000,000  heat  units, 

whereas  7,800  cubic  feet  of  gas,  the  equivalent  in  price  (gas  at 
80  cts.  per  1,000  cubic  feet),  yield  only 

7,800  X  710  =  5,538,000  heat  units. 

Hence,  heat  derived  from  burning  gaseous  fuel  costs  at  least 
five  times  as  much  as  heat  derived  from  burning  a  medium 
quality  of  coal. 

Nevertheless,  cooking  by  gas  is  actually  cheaper  than  with  coal, 
always  supposing  there  is  no  wasteful  burning  of  gas,  because 
a  gas  fire  is  extinguished  quickly,  giving  off  no  further  heat, 
whereas  a  coal  fire  must  be  kept  burning  until  it  goes  out,  even 
when  no  longer  required.  Much  saving  can  also  be  effected  by 
a  nice  regulation  of  the  cooking  burners.  In  general,  it  may  be 
stated,  that  while  in  coal  ranges  only  about  10  per  cent  of  the 


18  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

heat  generated  is  utilized,  the  rest  passing  up  the  chimney  or 
heating  the  kitchen,  in  gas  ranges  this  percentage  is  usually 
50  per  cent  or  even  more.  Many  experiments,  conducted  by 
gas  authorities  to  ascertain  the  actual  facts,  show  that  with 
proper  management  cooking  by  gas  is  really  cheaper  than 
by  coal. 

Statistics  seem  to  confirm  the  growing  popularity  of  gas  as  a 
kitchen  fuel,  for  some  gas  works  report  an  even  larger  day  than 
night  consumption,  which  fact  cannot  be  explained  in  any  other 
way  than  by  the  increased  use  of  gas  in  cooking.  It  is  also 
pleasant  to  record  the  fact  that  people  of  small  means  have,  in  the 
last  ten  years,  become  more  and  more  aware  of  the  advantages  of 
gas,  have  relinquished  their  former  prejudices  that  gas  for  cook- 
ing is  an  expensive  method,  and  are  now  full  of  praise  for  the 
economy  effected  by  using  gas.  Nothing  could  be  more  errone- 
ous than  to  suppose  that  cooking  by  gas  is  a  luxury  to  be  in- 
dulged in  only  by  well-to-do  people.  There  are  a  number  of 
households,  in  which  gas  is  used  and  properly  managed  in  the 
kitchen  twice  a  day,  not  only  for  cooking,  but  also  for  boiling 
clothes  to  be  washed,  heating  the  laundry  irons,  and  making  hot 
water  for  dish  washing  in  gas  water  heaters,  and  where  the 
average  monthly  gas  bill  does  not  exceed  $3.00  in  the  summer 
months  and  $5.00  in  the  winter  months,  including  the  gas  for 
lighting.  Many  improvements  in  the  construction  of  gas 
cookers  and  gas  ranges  have  been  made  in  recent  years;  the 
ovens  are  better  ventilated,  and  are  heated  more  uniformly, 
and  better  non-luminous  burners  are  used  in  the  top  plate, 
which  can  be  easily  cleaned,  and  have  an  adjustable  air 
supply,  thus  doing  away  with  the  former  tendency  of  burners 
to  light  back. 

During  the  summer  months,  gaseous  fuel  may  be  advantage- 
ously used  for  heating  the  water  required  for  bathing,  ablutions, 
and  for  shaving.  Not  more  than  one  cent  per  day  is  required 
to  heat  enough  hot  water  for  dish-washing  purposes,  by  a 
gas  water-heater  supplying  a  kitchen  faucet  directly,  and  enough 
hot  water  can  be  heated  for  a  bath  in  about  30  minutes  with 
a  gas  consumption  of  about  7.5  cubic  feet,  costing  only 
0.75  cent.  The  use  of  such  gas  water-heaters  is  growing  in 
popularity  every  year. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  cost  of  heating  water  by  city  gas,  the 
Ruud  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Pittsburgh,  who  are  makers  of 


Advantages  of  Gas  for  Heat  and  Power          19 

several  types  of  gas  water-heaters,  had  a  special  installation  made 
in  a  house.  The  heater  used  supplied  three  bathtubs,  three 
laundry  tubs,  a  kitchen  sink  and  three  lavatories.  A  separate 
gas  meter  was  installed  on  the  gas  service  supplying  the  gas 
water-heater.  The  gas  supplied  averaged  about  650  B.t.u. 
per  cubic  foot,  and  cost  $1.00  per  1000  cubic  feet.  The  re- 
sult of  the  reading  of  the  meter  for  a  period  covering  one  and 
one-half  years  showed  that  the  average  monthly  cost  of  gas  to 
operate  the  gas  water-heater  including  the  pilot  light  amounted 
to  $2.73.  This  sum  appears  to  be  very  moderate  indeed,  and  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  kitchen  boiler  was,  during  the 
winter  months,  heated  by  the  coal  range,  the  gas  water-heater 
being  fitted  up  so  as  to  act  as  " supplementary "  or  "re-heating" 
system.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  pilot  light  used  in  the 
gas  water-heater,  used  on  the  average  32  cents  worth  of  gas  per 
month.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  so-called  automatic 
gas  water-heaters,  which  require  the  constant  burning  of  a 
pilot  light,  which  are  not  quite  so  economical,  but  the  smaller 
sizes  of  instantaneous  heaters,  in  which  the  gas  flame  is 
controlled  by  a  thermostat  and  cut  down  automatically  to  the 
smallest  possible  size,  as  soon  as  the  water  has  attained  the 
maximum  required  temperature,  may  be  safely  recommended 
for  use. 

In  the  laundries  of  many  public  institutions  the  heating  of 
irons  is  economically  effected  by  means  of  gas;  the  use  of  gas  is 
likewise  popular  in  tailoring  and  other  industrial  establishments. 
Gas  is  also  used  in  households,  for  warming  dishes  in  plate 
warmers,  for  the  running  of  domestic  pumping  engines,  and  for 
purposes  of  ventilation  to  create  a  positive  upward  draught  in 
exhaust  flues. 

The  majority  of  advantages  enumerated  for  gas  used  as  fuel 
in  cooking  are  equally  true  of  the  heating  of  rooms  by  means  of 
gas  stoves.  But  in  one  important  respect  there  is  a  difference, 
because  heating  by  gas,  at  present  rates  charged  for  manu- 
factured gas,  is  somewhat  expensive  if  applied  to  rooms  or  apart- 
ments which  are  constantly  occupied,  and  which,  therefore, 
require  gas  heating  stoves  or  gas  logs  to  be  kept  burning  for 
many  hours;  in  such  cases  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel  costs  more 
than  warming  by  the  use  of  coal  or  other  fuel. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  numerous  instances  where  the  use  of  gas 
heating  stoves  is  both  convenient  and  comparatively  economical, 


20  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

for  instance  in  the  heating  of  bathrooms,  or  of  rooms  not  con- 
stantly occupied,  as  in  hotels,  where  heat  is  only  occasionally 
wanted.  Here  again,  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  cooking  by  gas, 
the  chief  superiority  lies  in  the  fact  that  no  preparations  for  heat- 
ing are  required,  that  no  fuel  has  to  be  carried  in  or  ashes  taken 
out  and  removed,  that  the  apartments  can  be  quickly  heated, 
because  the  heat  from  the  fully  turned  on  burners  becomes  at 
once  available,  and  that  the  heat  can  easily  be  regulated  and 
quickly  turned  off,  when  not  wanted  any  longer. 

As  an  auxiliary  heating  method,  heating  by  gas  is  advanta- 
geous, for  there  are  days  in  the  fall  or  spring  of  the  year  when  one 
does  not  need  to  put  the  regular  heating  apparatus  in  operation ; 
gas  stoves  and  gas  fireplace  heaters  are  also  useful  in  supplement- 
ing the  regular  steam,  hot-water  or  furnace  heat  on  extremely 
cold  days,  or  for  very  exposed  rooms;  and,  finally,  heating  by  gas 
may  be  of  much  service  in  an  emergency,  for  instance,  if  the  coal 
supply  has  become  exhausted  at  the  time  of  a  coal  miners'  strike, 
when  coal  cannot  possibly  be  obtained  at  any  price. 

There  are,  finally,  numerous  uses  of  gaseous  fuel  in  manu- 
facturing industries,  to  which  I  can  refer  but  very  briefly. 

Gas  is  utilized  extensively  as  a  source  of  power  in  the  modern 
gas  engine,  and  in  many  smaller  industries  and  workshops  this 
form  of  prime  motor  competes  very  successfully  with  the  steam 
engine,  principally  on  account  of  the  low  operating  expenses  and 
the  small  amount  of  attendance  required.  The  smaller  machines 
do  not  require  the  constant  employment  of  a  skilled  and  licensed 
engineer,  hence  are  preferred  for  many  purposes,  except  where  the 
buildings  must  be  heated  by  exhaust  steam  from  steam  engines. 
Gas  engines  are  now  made  in  many  sizes,  ranging  from  0.5  horse- 
power to  many  hundred  horsepower.  In  the  last  ten  years  great 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  design  and  constructive 
details  of  gas  engines,  and  in  the  simplification  and  increased 
strength  of  important  working  parts. 

A  gas  engine  consumes,  according  to  size,  on  an  average  from 
20  to  30  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  horsepower-hour,  at  an  expendi- 
ture of  from  1.6  to  2.5  cents,  whereas  steam  engines  require  from 
5  to  10  pounds  of  coal  per  horsepower-hour,  costing,  with  coal  at 
$4  per  ton,  from  1  to  2  cents  per  hour,  so  that  the  cost  of  fuel, 
per  se,  is  nearly  the  same.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  entire  output  of  gas  from  gas  works 
in  Germany  is  used  at  present  for  the  production  of  power. 


Advantages  of  Gas  for  Heat  and  Power         21 

It  may  be  possible  that  in  the  future  a  still  larger  utilization  of 
gaseous  fuel  may  be  brought  about,  if  arrangements  can  be  eco- 
nomically perfected  for  conducting  cheap  fuel  gas  from  the  large 
coal  fields  to  the  principal  cities  instead  of  adhering  to  the  present 
practice  of  shipping  the  coal  at  expensive  freight  rates. 


CHAPTER  V./V 

THE   ARRANGEMENT   OF   GAS   PIPES   IN   BUILDINGS. 

GAS  PIPING  may  be  defined  as  the  art,  or  process,  of  fitting  a 
building  with  pipes  intended  for  gas  supply.  It  designates  the 
trade,  or  mechanical  labor  of  cutting,  fitting  and  putting  together 
the  pipes  used  for  the  conveyance  of  gas  for  lighting,  for  heating 
and  cooking,  or  for  power  purposes.  Gas  fitters  are  skilled  work- 
men who  cut,  fit  and  put  up  pipes,  fittings  and  fixtures  intended 
for  gas  lighting,  or  for  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel  for  heat  or  power. 

In  former  times,  the  gas  piping  of  buildings  in  the  United 
States  was  done  by  a  special  class  of  craftsmen  or  mechanics, 
and  the  gas  fitters  formed  a  trade  entirely  distinct  from  the 
plumbers.  Nowadays,  however,  nearly  all  the  gas  piping  done 
in  buildings  is  carried  out  by  plumbing  contractors,  though  the 
journeymen,  who  do  the  work,  are  generally  special  gas-fitters. 
In  exceptional  instances,  parts  of  the  gas  piping  in  houses  are 
done  by  mechanics  employed  by  the  gas  companies.  Although 
this  is  a  common  practice  in  England  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
continent  of  Europe,  it  is  not  usual  in  the  United  States,  except 
possibly  in  cases  where  gas  companies  do  odd  pieces  of  piping, 
such  as  may  be  required  for  a  gas  cooking  or  gas  heating  stove, 
furnished  and  installed  by  them. 

When  a  building  is  to  be  piped  for  gas,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
make  a  correct  layout  of  the  piping  on  the  several  floors.  This 
layout  should  be  based  upon  the  general  plans  of  the  architects, 
which  should  show  the  location  of  all  the  outlets  required  for  gas, 
whether  for  light,  heat  or  power.  In  order  to  determine  the  sizes 
of  the  gas  service,  of  the  risers,  of  the  distributing  lines,  and  of  the 
branches  to  these  outlets,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  at  the  begin- 
ning the  number  of  gas  flames  required  for  light,  and,  where  gas  is 
used  for  fuel,  to  ascertain  separately  the  number  of  gas  stoves, 
gas  ranges,  gas  logs  and  gas  water-heaters,  and  to  figure  up  their 
total  maximum  hourly  gas  consumption.  In  counting  the  num- 
ber of  gas  outlets,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  the  number 
of  burners,  which  will  be  required  at  each  outlet. 

22 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     23 

The  term  "service  pipe"  is  usually  applied  to  that  portion  of 
the  gas-pipe  system  of  a  building,  which  begins  at  the  street 
gas-main  and  ends  at  the  consumer's  gas  meter. 

The  gas  service  from  the  street  main  to  the  inside  of  the  cellar 
is  always  put  in  by  the  gas  company,  and  the  custom  of  gas  com- 
panies in  American  cities  is  not  to  charge  the  owner  for  the  fur- 
nishing and  laying  of  the  service  pipe. 

Both  the  gas  service-pipe  and  the  gas  meter  remain  the  property 
of  the  gas  company,  and  the  latter 's  responsibility  does  not  ex- 
tend beyond  them;  in  other  words,  in  case  of  any  trouble  or 
defect  in  the  gas  supply  of  a  house,  the  company  looks  only  after 
the  gas  meter  and  the  service  pipe,  and  keeps  both  in  repair  or 
attends  to  the  cleaning  out  of  the  same  in  case  of  stoppages, 
while  it  devolves  upon  the  house  owner  to  have  the  house  pipes 
for  the  distribution  of  gas  examined  and  kept  in  proper  condition. 
Many  gas  companies,  however,  exercise  a  control  over  the  gas 
pipes  while  they  are  being  put  into  a  building,  and  in  one  excep- 
tional case,  mentioned  in  Chapter  XVI,  the  gas  company  issues 
and  enforces  rules  regarding  the  proper  manufacture  of  the  gas 
fixtures. 

The  material  for  the  main  service-pipes  from  the  street  into  the 
house  is  either  cast-  or  wrought-iron  pipe.  Lead  pipe  is  scarcely 
ever  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  United  States. 

Cast-iron  service  pipes,  with  lead-caulked  joints,  are  used  only 
in  the  case  of  a  very  large  building  or  a  group  of  buildings,  such 
as  public  institutions,  which  require  gas  pipes  four  inches  in 
diameter  and  upward. 

Large  service  pipes,  up  to  and  including  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter, are  as  a  rule  put  in  with  wrought-iron,  screw-jointed  pipes, 
while  for  smaller  services  both  lead  and  wrought  iron  are  em- 
ployed. Usually,  wrought-iron,  screw-jointed  service  pipe  is 
preferred  to  lead,  at  least  in  the  United  States,  probably  because 
the  lead  pipe  is  liable  to  sag  in  the  trench,  unless  well  supported, 
and  thus  dips  or  traps  are  caused  in  the  pipe,  which  may  accumu- 
late water  of  condensation,  and  thereby  cause  the  flickering  of  the 
light,  or  may  even  cause  the  gas  to  cease  flowing. 

In  the  use  of  wrought-iron  pipes,  however,  certain  precautions 
should  be  observed  for  the  protection  of  the  pipe  against  cor- 
rosion. The  pipes  should  be  laid  in  trenches  with  a  firm  bottom, 
and  their  outside  should  be  coated  with  asphalt  or  coal-tar  pitch, 
particularly  where  they  are  laid  in  soils  containing  acid  or  alka- 


24  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

line  residues,  or  in  soils  mixed  with  ashes,  cinders,  furnace  slag  or 
chemical  refuse,  all  of  which  have  a  tendency  to  cause  a  quick 
destruction  of  the  pipe  by  corrosion. 

Gas  service-pipes  should  always  be  laid  with  a  good  pitch, 
either  toward  the  street  main  or  toward  the  house,  and  depres- 
sions or  low  places  in  the  pipe  should  be  avoided,  so  that  no  con- 
densed tarry  vapor  will  remain  in  this  portion  of  the  pipe.  It  is 
equally  necessary  thatvsuch  pipes  be  protected  against  frost,  by 
laying  them  at  a  proper  depth  in  the  ground.  Where  gas  service- 
pipes  are  necessarily  exposed  to  the  outer  air,  as  sometimes  does 
happen  in  crossing  basement  areas,  they  should  be  thoroughly 
wrapped  with  some  non-conducting  material  such  as  is  applied  to 
steam  pipes  to  prevent  loss  of  heat.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is 
advisable  to  fasten  over  the  pipe  a  slanting  board,  to  prevent 
snow  and  ice  from  lodging  on  the  pipe. 

In  laying  gas  service-pipes  it  is  always  advisable  to  place  on 
the  line  a  shut-off,  operated  by  a  long  key  from  a  box  in  the  side- 
walk near  the  curb,  to  control  the  gas  supply  to  each  house  from 
the  outside.  While  the  shut-off  is  not  a  necessity  in  the  case  of 
private  dwelling  houses,  it  is  required  by  all  good  building  laws  in 
the  case  of  theaters,  churches  and  all  public  buildings,  and  to  this 
should  be  added  schoolhouses,  colleges,  hospitals  and  asylums 
of  all  kinds,  and  workshops,  factories,  warehouses  and  large 
manufacturing  establishments,  all  of  which  require  large  gas 
service-pipes.  In  case  of  a  fire  in  any  of  these  buildings  it  is 
important  to  have  means  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  gas  from  the 
outside.  It  is  preferable  to  place  this  valve  on  the  sidewalk  near 
the  curb,  where  it  remains  more  accessible  than  when  located  in 
the  pavement  of  the  roadway. 

All  gas  shut-offs  on  service  pipes  should  be  of  the  full  diameter 
of  the  pipe,  and  of  such  construction  that  when  full  open  they 
will  not  reduce  the  available  inside  diameter  of  the  gas  pipe;  in 
other  words,  either  gate  valves  or  round-way  stopcocks  of  steam 
metal  should  be  used  in  preference  to  globe  valves  or  to  ordinary 
stopcocks. 

The  size  of  the  service  pipe  is  governed  by  the  number  of  gas 
outlets  to  be  supplied,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  by  the  estimated 
total  maximum  hourly  consumption  of  gas.  In  ascertaining 
this,  the  mistake  should  not  be  made  of  counting  the  number  of 
gas  outlets  in  the  rooms,  halls  and  staircases,  but  the  exact  num- 
ber of  burners  to  each  outlet  should  be  designated  on  the  plans, 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     25 


and  the  size*  of  pipe  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
gas  burners,  a  suitable  allowance  being  made  in  addition  for  fire- 
place gas  logs,  cooking  gas  stoves,  ventilating  gas  jets,  supply 
to  domestic  gas  motors,  etc. 

The  rule  should  be  laid  down  that  no  service  pipe,  even  for  the 
smallest  house,  should  be  less  than  one  inch  inside  diameter,  and 
it  is,  at  this  day,  the  practice  of  most  gas  companies  to  run  noth- 
ing less  than  1-inch  gas  services,  and  1}  inches  would  be  even 
better.  While  these  sizes  are  slightly  larger  than  called  for  by 
the  requirements  of  small  dwellings,  they  will  prove  more  satis- 
factory in  the  end,  as  larger  services  are  not  so  liable  to  stoppages 
by  naphthaline,  while  their  cost  is  only  a  trifle  more.  It  should 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  large  supply  or  service  pipes  act,  to 
some  extent,  as  governors  in  reducing  the  influence  of  a  sudden 
closing  of  a  number  of  burners.  Besides,  it  often  happens  that 
additions  are  subsequently  built  to  a  house,  or  to  a  factory,  and 
the  gas  service-pipes  in  such  buildings  often  become  insufficient 
and  inadequate  for  the  service  which  they  have  to  perform,  unless 
allowance  has  been  made  in  the  beginning  for  a  possible  increase 
in  the  number  of  burners.  Larger  buildings  require  service 
pipes  from  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter. 

The  sizes  of  gas  service-pipes  may  be  computed  from  formulas 
for  the  flow  of  gas,  which  will  be  referred  to  later  on,  or  they  may 
be  readily  found  in  the  elaborate  and  complete  tables  calculated 
from  such  formulas,  a  number  of  which  are  given  hereafter. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  where  water  gas  or  naphtha  gas  is 
used  (the  latter  in  gasoline  gas  or  air  machines  for  country 
houses)  the  sizes  of  pipes  should  be  increased  15  to  20  per  cent 
over  those  required  for  coal  gas. 

The  following  condensed  table  of  sizes  of  service  pipes  answers 
for  all  practical  purposes: 


Burmera. 

Size  of  Service 
Pipe. 

Inches. 

For        1  to  15 

1 

16  to  25 

1.25 

26  to  60 

1.50 

60  to  100 

2 

101  to  170 

2.50 

171  to  250 

3 

26  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

The  material  used  almost  universally  for  gas  pipes  within  the 
building  is  standard  welded  wrought-iron  gas  pipe.  A  great 
deal  of  steel  pipe  is  nowadays  sold  in  the  market,  but  this  is  much 
more  brittle,  and  the  threads  do  not  cut  so  readily  or  so  evenly  on 
this  kind  of  pipe.  It  is,  therefore,  always  preferable  to  specify  or 
to  order  " genuine"  wrought-iron  pipe.  In  some  of  the  better 
class  of  work  galvanized-iron  pipe  is  used  to  prevent  rust  accu- 
mulations on  the  inside  of  the  pipe. 

Lead,  tin  and  composition  pipes  are  used  to  some  extent  in 
European  cities,  and  chiefly  in  England,  at  least  for  the  smaller 
sizes.  The  advantages  of  such  pipes  are,  that  owing  to  their 
greater  interior  smoothness  they  offer  less  resistance  to  the  flow 
of  gas,  .and  that  they  do  not  corrode,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  run 
them  in  concealed  places,  for  nails  may  accidentally  be  driven 
into  them  causing  leaks.  Bends  in  such  pipes  must  be  made  with 
great  care,  otherwise  the  area  of  the  pipe  may  be  contracted. 

Copper  pipes  are  not  recommended  for  gas  piping,  for  it  is  said 
that  a  chemical  compound  of  copper  and  acetylene  may  form  as 
an  incrustation  in  the  pipes,  where  the  gas  supplied  is  insuf- 
ficiently purified,  and  this  compound  may  give  rise  to  explosions. 

Iron  gas  pipes  are  first  cut  to  measure  from  the  layout  made  by 
the  gas-fitter;  the  ends  are  then  threaded  by  means  of  sharp  dies 
with  standard  threads.  The  burr  due  to  the  cutting  must  be 
carefully  removed,  and  the  pipe  ends  reamed  out,  since  it  tends 
to  reduce  the  area  of  the  pipe.  The  precaution  is  particularly 
important  for  smaller  sizes  of  pipes. 

The  pipes  are  put  together  with  screw  joints  and  red  lead. 
Fittings,  such  as  sockets,  elbows,  bends,  tees,  crosses  and  re- 
ducers, are  used  for  the  running  of  branches,  for  making  changes 
in  direction,  for  providing  the  outlets  for  the  fixtures,  etc.  The 
better  and  stronger  fittings  are  malleable-iron  fittings  with  beads 
or  shoulders,  but  for  sizes  above  two  inches  in  diameter  cast-iron 
fittings  are  used.  Black  fittings  often  have  sandholes,  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  advisable  to  use  nothing  but  galvanized  fittings. 
In  screwing  up  the  pipe  and  the  fittings,  the  joints  should  be 
made  entirely  gas-tight  without  using  any  lubricant  other  than 
oil,  or  possibly  some  red  lead.  Threads  which  permit  the  pipe  to 
screw  up  to  the  shoulder  of  the  fitting,  while  the  joint  is  still  loose, 
should  be  avoided.  Red  lead  should  be  used  sparingly  so  that  it 
may  not  become  squeezed  into  the  inside  of  the  pipe  where  it 
would  cause  an  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  gas,  and  a  reduction  in 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     27 

the  clear  bore  of  the  pipe.  Where  it  is  used  at  all,  it  should  be 
put  on  the  pipe  threads  and  not  into  the  fittings.  Before  putting 
pipes  together,  they  should  be  blown  into  and  examined  for 
obstructions,  and  it  is  a  good  practice  to  tap  the  pipe  with  a 
hammer  to  cause  any  rust  flakes  to  fall  off. 

The  practice,  which  was  formerly  quite  a  common  one  amongst 
gas-fitters,  of  making  the  joints  tight  by  using  gas-fitters'  cement 
cannot  be  approved,  for  such  cement  is  liable  to  crack*  and  break 
off  when  cold ;  it  may  also  become  softened  by  the  action  of  the 
gas,  and  if  in  the  vicinity  of  steam  or  hot-air  pipes,  it  is  liable 
to  melt.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  prohibit  entirely  the  use  of 
gas-fitters'  cement.  Careless  or  unscrupulous  mechanics  often 
apply  such  cement,  not  only  to  leaky  joints,  but  also  to  fittings 
having  small  sandholes.  Where  defective  fittings  are  encoun- 
tered, the  only  right  thing  to  do  is  to  reject  the  imperfect  fit- 
tings and  to  use  only  those  which  are  perfect. 

Equally  bad  is  the  practice  of  filling  up  the  gas  pipes  with 
water,  or  other  liquid,  or  with  diluted  muriatic  acid,  to  induce 
rusting  up  of  the  joints  to  make  the  piping  tight.  This  prac- 
tice, which  generally  leads  to  subsequent  troubles,  owing  to 
the  stopping  up  of  the  pipes  with  rust,  should  be  forbidden, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is  always  in  old  houses  considerable 
accumulation  of  rust  in  pipe  systems,  even  where  the  pipes  have 
not  been  so  treated. 

Where  iron  gas  pipes  are  bedded  in  cinder  floor-fillings  they 
should  be  painted  on  the  outside  with  some  protective  coating  to 
prevent  corrosion  from  the  outside. 

Risers  should  be  controlled  by  round-way  stopcocks  or  soft- 
seat  globe- valves,  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  line,  generally  at  the 
cellar  ceiling. 

When  a  gas- piping  system  is  completed,  its  tightness  should  be 
tested  by  rneans  of  a  force  pump  and  a  mercury  gauge.  The  use 
of  pressure  or  spring  gauges  is  to  be  deprecated  as  they  are  hardly 
reliable  for  such  low  pressures  as  are  applied  in  the  testing  of 
gas-piping  systems. 

Where  good  materials  are  used  and  put  together  by  competent 
workmen,  there  is  no  difficulty  whatever  in  getting  the  pipe 
system  sufficiently  tight  to  withstand  a  test  equal  to  a  pressure 
of  18  inches  of  mercury  in  the  glass  tube,  equivalent  to  approxi- 
mately 9  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch.  Should  the  mer- 
cury in  the  gauge  drop,  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  there  are  leaks 


28  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

somewhere.  Such  leaks  are  generally  found  by  introducing 
some  sulphuric  ether  into  the  pipes,  or  else  by  applying  soapsuds 
with  a  brush  to  the  outside  of  the  joints  and  fittings,  and  waiting 
for  the  appearance  of  soap  bubbles.  Split  pipes  or  defective 
fittings  should  be  at  once  removed  when  discovered  by  the  test. 
(See  the  Chapter  on  the  Testing  of  Gas  Pipes.) 

Branches  to  side- wall  burners  are  generally  made  0.375  inch 
in  diameter,  and  branches  for  chandeliers  0.5  inch.  In  the 
best  practice  no  gas  pipes  smaller  than  0.5  inch  are  used,  and 
these  are  reduced  at  the  outlet  for  the  side-wall  burners  to  0.375 
inch;  in  the  same  way  the  pipes  for  center  lamps  or  chandeliers 
with  more  than  four  burners  are  made  0.75  inch  in  diameter. 
In  Dresden,  a  municipal  rule  prescribes  that  all  gas  pipes  which 
are  not  carried  exposed  should  be  not  less  than  0.75  inch. 
The  rule  is  a  good  one,  and  might,  with  advantage,  be  adopted 
in  the  American  gas-piping  practices. 

In  laying  out  the  system  of  main  distributing  pipes  and 
branches  to  outlets,  the  endeavor  should  be  to  get  an  equal 
supply  of  gas,  to  arrange  the  distribution  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner and,  wherever  practical,  to  provide  a  circulation  system, 
the  advantages  of  which  are  particularly  noticeable  in  larger 
buildings. 

The  greater  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas,  and  the  rougher  the 
inside  of  pipes,  the  larger  should  they  be.  Gas-fitters  are  gener- 
ally governed  by  some  kind  of  table  of  pipe  sizes,  and  in  using 
these,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  a  possible  future  increase  in  the 
number  of  outlets.  It  is  always  advisable  to  be  on  the  safe  side, 
as  a  larger  caliber  of  pipe  is  never  an  objection,  but  may  be,  at  a 
future  time,  a  decided  benefit.  In  former  years  the  gas  com- 
panies used  to  give  much  more  attention  to  this  matter  than  at 
present,  and  each  company  had  its  own  rules  and  regulations  and 
tables  of  sizes,  but  only  a  few  companies  publish  such  tables  at 
the  present  time.  Some  of  these  will  be  given  in  full  further  on. 
(See  Chapter  VII.) 

Table  I,  on  page  29,  is  a  useful  one  for  correctly  proportioning 
the  sizes  of  risers,  distributing  lines,  and  branches. 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     29 


TABLE  I. 


Diameter  of 

Length  of  Pipe  in  Yards. 

Pipe  in 

Inches. 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

0.50 

7 

6 

5 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

0.75 

17 

14 

12 

10 

10 

9     |       8 

8 

7 

1.00 

32 

26 

22 

20 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

1.25 

52 

43 

37 

33 

30 

28 

26 

25 

23 

1.50 

79 

64 

56 

50 

45 

42 

39 

37 

35 

2.00 

150 

123 

106 

95 

87 

80 

75 

71 

67 

Number  of  Burners 

It  is  advisable  to  run  several  vertical  gas-risers,  in  order  to 
shorten  the  horizontal  gas  distribution.  The  main  gas-risers 
should,  if  practicable,  be  kept  accessible,  or  even  exposed,  in 
minor  closets. 

All  gas  pipes  should  be  run  with  a  continuous  fall  of  at  least 
1  inch  in  100  feet  toward  the  gas  meter,  and  the  greatest  care  is 
necessary  to  insure  that  the  entire  gas-piping  system  is  free  from 
any  low  places  or  sags,  where  water  or  vapor  of  condensation 
may  accumulate,  for  this  interferes  with  the  free  flow  of  gas  and 
causes  the  annoying  "jumping"  of  the  light. 

Branches  from  running  lines  to  ceiling  outlets  should  not  be 
taken  directly  from  the  bottom  of  a  running  line,  because  any 
water  of  condensation  will  run  into  the  fixture  and  give  trouble ; 
it  is  much  better  practice  to  start  these  branches  from  the  side  or 
top  of  the  running  lines.  In  the  same  way,  it  is  better  to  run 
bracket  outlets  up  from  below,  which  can  be  done  on  all  floors, 
except  the  lowest  floor  of  the  building. 

Xo  gas  pipes  should  be  run  through  flues,  nor  should  they  be 
placed  under  hearthstones. 

Where  right-angled  turns  in  horizontal  piping  are  made,  it  is 
advisable  to  use  plugged  tees  instead  of  elbows,  as  these  fittings 
can  be  utilized  in  making  changes  or  additions.  The  floor  boards 
over  such  places  should  be  fastened  down  with  brass  screws. 

All  outlets  should  be  well  strapped  and  fastened;  all  drop 
fixtures  as  well  as  the  nipples  for  side-wall  fixtures  should  be 
perfectly  plumb  or  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  from  which 
they  project.  The  nipples  should  be  cut  off  the  exact  length  for 
putting  on  the  gas  fixtures. 

In  order  to  measure  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  in  buildings, 
gas  companies  furnish  to  their  customers,  and  set,  generally  free 


30  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

of  charge,  a  gas  meter  or  instrument  measuring  the  consumption 
of  gas.  The  general  construction  and  accuracy  of  these  will  be 
referred  to  in  a  later  chapter.  (See  Chapter  XVII.)  It  is  usual 
to  fit  up  the  gas  meter  in  a  cool  place  in  the  cellar.  The  location 
of  the  meter  should  be  such  that  the  index  of  the  same  can  be 
readily  read  by  the  gas  companies'  inspector.  Where  much  gas 
is  used  for  fuel  purposes,  in  cooking  or  heating,  and  also  where 
gaseous  fuel  is  sold  at  a  lesser  price  than  gas  for  lighting  purposes, 
many  gas  companies  furnish  and  set  a  second  meter,  which  regis- 
ters the  consumption  for  cooking,  etc.,  separately  from  that  for 
lighting  a  building. 

In  the  best  practice  separate  gas-service  lines  are  run  to  all 
places  where  gas  is  to  be  consumed  for  either  heating  or  cooking, 
and  such  branches  are  never  taken  from  the  nearest  line  which 
supplies  gas  for  lighting. 

A  badly  executed  gas-lighting  system  is  often  one  of  the  great- 
est troubles  a  house  owner  has  to  contend  with ;  it  leads  to  con- 
stant annoyances,  and  may  cause  injurious  leaks  and  sometimes 
dangerous  gas  explosions.  Gas  piping  costs  but  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  total  cost  of  a  building,  hence  it  is  advisable  to 
have  it  done  only  by  thoroughly  competent  and  honest  con- 
tractors. 

In  dwelling  houses  erected  by  speculative  builders  this  work  is 
usually  done  very  badly.  The  lowest-priced  gas-fitter  is  chosen ; 
no  specification  is  given  for  the  work,  and  the  fitter  seldom  takes 
the  interest  in  his  work  which  the  importance  of  the  subject 
requires.  Being  chiefly  concerned  with  completing  his  contract 
as  cheaply  as  possible,  without  regard  to  safety  and  efficiency,  he 
buys  pipes  and  fittings  of  inferior  quality,  and  of  insufficient  size, 
employs  mechanics  without  intelligence,  experience  or  integrity, 
and  compels  them  to  do  their  work  in  a  hurry,  to  use  as  little 
material  as  possible,  while  they  in  turn  pay  no  attention  to  the 
proper  laying,  supporting  and  jointing  of  the  pipes. 

When  the  piping  is  completed  the  enterprising  builder  goes  to 
the  cheapest  gas-fixture  store,  buys  ill-constructed  fixtures  with 
inadequate  tubing  and  inferior  burners,  and  has  these  put  up  in 
a  hurry.  The  buyer  or  occupant  of  the  house  soon  encounters 
endless  annoyances,  resulting  from  the  insufficient  size  of  the  gas 
pipes,  from  insufficient  or  careless  support  of  pipes,  from  leaky 
joints,  split  pipes  or  fittings  with  sandholes.  The  gas  will  burn 
badly,  the  flames  will  jump,  and  there  will  be  numerous  leaks  of 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     31 

gas.    It  is  a  matter  of  common  occurrence  that  in  such  houses  the 
piping  has  to  be  entirely  reconstructed  to  get  proper  illumination, 
and  to  get  rid  of  the  gas  leaks  which  endanger  the  health  of  the 
occupants  and  threaten  gas  explosions. 
The  following  editorial  is  taken  from  Building: 

"  Installation  of  Gas  Pipes" 

"If  there  is  any  one  appliance  more  than  another  that  is  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  mechanic,  it  is  the  gas-fitting.  Much  time 
and  care  may  be  taken  in  selecting  the  fittings  and  choosing 
artistic  brackets  or  chandeliers,  but  little  thought  is  apt  to  be 
given  to  the  general  system  of  the  mains,  or  the  layout  of  the 
pipes.  We  have  learned  to  study  our  plumbing  and  drainage 
carefully,  but  further  than  seeing  that  the  pipes  do  not  leak,  there 
is  little  attention  paid  to  the  gas  piping. 

"  In  a  lengthy  letter  to  the  Boston  Transcript,  Mr.  J.  Lyman 
Faxon,  a  well-known  Boston  architect,  calls  special  attention  to 
the  danger  from  gas  fixtures.  Among  all  the  appliances  that 
enter  into  the  complex  make-up  of  the  modern  house,  there  is 
nothing,  perhaps,  that  invites  more  danger  and  is  attended  with 
so  many  fatal  accidents  as  gas.  Every  paper  we  pick  up  notes 
some  case  of  asphyxiation  from  gas,  involving  the  lives  often  of 
several  individuals  in  a  single  casualty.  These  fatalities,  due  to 
asphyxiation,  says  Mr.  Faxon, 

'are  directly  attributable  to  two  causes:  (1)  improper  and  unscientific 
installation  of  gas-pipe  systems,  resulting  in  inequality  of  pressure  and 
distribution,  and  (2)  to  the  carelessness  of  people  in  turning  down  the 
gas.  In  my  judgment,  he  says,  comparatively  few  cases  of  fatality  are 
due  to  ignorant  people  blowing  out  the  gas  flame.' 

"  After  explaining  the  nature  of  gas,  its  volatile  character,  he 
states  that, 

'  the  natural  flow  or  direction  of  gas  in  pipes,  when  under  pressure  or 
free  from  obstructions,  is  upward  and  toward  the  freest  combustion;  it 
can  be  forced,  by  pressure,  through  down  pipes,  but  if  the  pressure  is 
unequal  by  reason  of  imperfectly  disposed  piping  or  by  larger  consump- 
tion at  other  points,  its  flow  will  be  towards  those  parts  of  the  system 
which  are  under  greatest  pressure  or  freest  consumption.  It  is,  there- 
fore, of  greatest  consequence  that  the  pressure  in  any  system  of  pipes 
shall  be  equal  and  constant  at  all  points.  The  pressure  in  vertical  pipes 
increases  about  ten  per  cent  for  every  thirty  feet  of  rise,  and  a  relaxa- 


32  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

tion  of  pressure  of  about  five  per  cent  for  every  thirty  feet  down,  so  that 
the  difference  in  pressure  between  two  burners  sixty  feet  apart,  verti- 
cally, will  be  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  initial  or  normal  pressure, 
which  accounts  for  the  extinguishing  of  the  gas  flame  when  turned  down 
low;  indeed,  I  have  observed  flames  at  full  cock  which  could  hardly  hold 
their  own  against  the  air  for  lack  of  pressure  in  the  system.' 

"  He  condemns  the  present  system  of  gas  piping  as  being  radi- 
cally wrong,  entirely  inadequate,  and  dangerous.  As  may  be 
inferred  from  the  above,  the  pressure  in  the  upper  rooms  of  a 
building  is  much  greater  than  in  the  lower,  and  a  burner  turned 
down  in  a  lower  room  would  easily  blow  out,  where,  under  the 
pressure  of  gas  in  the  upper  rooms,  it  would  hold  its  light.  The 
present  system  is  to  take  the  main  from  the  meter  for  the  whole 
house  to  some  central  point  in  the  basement,  thence  running  a 
central  riser  to  the  top  of  building  and  then  tapping  this  at  each 
floor  for  its  supply,  carrying  a  branch  pipe 

'  with  tap  circuits  or  feeders  to  the  ceiling  and  wall  fixtures  to  the  story 
below,  all  ending  in  dead  ends  and  rarely  any  subdivision  of  the  system 
into  individual  circuits,  and  generally  the  outlet  taps  are  taken  off  the 
bottom  of  all  horizontal  lines  of  piping,  instead  of  off  the  side  or  top  of 
the  pipe,  thus  causing  all  such  taps  and  the  appended  fixtures  to  con- 
stitute receptacles  for  impure  condensation  instead  of  providing  for  the 
return  of  condensation  to  the  base,  and  further,  with  no  provision  what- 
ever for  equality  of  pressure  throughout  the  entire  system. 

"  In  illustrating  the  effect  of  this  system,  Mr.  Faxon  states  the 
following  hypothetical  case,  and  one  which  is  likely  to  occur  in 
any  building  of  three  or  more  stories : 

'  For  instance,  time  ten  o'clock  P.M.,  room  on  a  lower  floor.  Occupant 
goes  to  bed,  or  ill  and  sleeping.  Gas  flame  turned  down  to  one  quarter 
candlepower,  windows  and  door  closed,  no  ventilation.  Twelve  o'clock 
or  later,  party  returns  from  theater  with  friends  to  room  in  top  story, 
turns  on  all  burners  to  full  cock  —  Presto !  Flame  in  lower  room  extin- 
guished by  indrawing  of  the  flame  into  the  pipe,  caused  by  the  excessive 
use  of  gas  in  upper  rooms.  In  a  few  moments  the  draught  is  relieved 
?nd  gas  is  ejected  into  the  lower  room  through  the  open  burner,  and  the 
occupant  is  asphyxiated  in  three  or  four  hours,  if  the  accident  is  not 
discovered/ 

"This  illustration  explains  many  fatalities  that  have  occurred 
from  escaping  gas,  and  shows  the  need  of  remodeling  our  present 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     33 

methods  of  gas  piping.    The  following  is  Mr.  Faxon's  suggestion 
for  piping  a  building: 

'The  proper  system  for  installing  gas  pipes  is  as  follows:  (1)  Each 
and  every  separate  story  or  apartment  in  a  house,  hotel,  office  building 
or  other,  liable  at  any  time  to  contain  a  sleeping  occupant,  should  have 
its  individual  circuit  from  the  base  or  initial  circuit.  (2)  Ml  gas  heaters 
and  gas  stoves  should  hkve  separate  circuits  from  the  initial  source. 
(3)  All  corridor,  hall,  and  vestibule  outlets  should  have  equalizing  pres- 
sure pipes,  making  complete  circuits  throughout  individual  systems 
from  individual  sources,  up,  around  and  back  to  initial  source.  I  have 
found  in  practice  that  the  sizes  of  such  equalizing  pressure  pipes  need  to 
be  about  five-eighths  the  size  of  the  main  supply  circuits,  and  that 
proper  installation  costs  20  to  25  per  cent  more  than  under  the  old  sys- 
tem. (5)  The  individual  main  circuit  supply  pipes  should  be  taken  off 
a  properly  calculated  header  or  drum,  and  each  circuit  cut  off  by  a  suit- 
able valve  at  the  header.  Thence  the  individual  circuit  should  be  run 
to  a  center  of  distribution  of  branch  and  tap  circuits.  All  vertical  pipes 
should  be  run  up  and  not  down,  and  all  off- takes  should  be  at  the  top  or 
side  of  pipes,  and  in  no  case  off  the  bottom.  All  piping  should  pitch 
toward  the  initial  source  for  drip  of  condensation.  The  main  circuit  or 
supply  pipe  should  be  continued  throughout  and  around  the  entire 
individual  system,  and  returned  from  the  farthest  point  to  and  connect 
with  the  base  or  initial  circuit  pipe.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance.' 

"The  frequent  accidents  from  asphyxiation  from  gas  emphasize 
the  necessity  for  special  attention  to  this  matter,  and  for  the 
remodeling  of  our  laws  in  this  respect.  The  necessity  for  equali- 
zation of  pressure  ih^  upper  and  lower  stories  is  apparent,  and 
this  could,  without  doubt,  be  secured  by  such  measures  as  sug- 
gested. With  this  provision  no  such  accident  as  the  case  in- 
stanced by  Mr.  Faxon  could  occur.  A  remodeling  of  the  laws 
for  gas  installation  is  evidently  as  much  needed  as  are  plumbing 
regulations.7' 

In  the  Engineering  Record,  of  September  22,  1894,  appeared 
a  lengthy  editorial  on  this  subject,  and  its  importance  must  be 
my  excuse  for  reprinting  it  here  in  full : 

"  Gas  Piping  for  Buildings." 

"  There  are  few  features  of  modern  building  construction  which 
do  not  receive  thorough  treatment  when  the  design  is  fortunate 
enough  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  competent  engineers  and  archi- 


34  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

tects,  and  yet  there  is  one  very  important  portion  of  the  struc- 
tural outfit,  so  to  speak,  of  a  building,  which  up  to  the  present 
time  receives  no  intelligent  consideration  whatever,  except  in 
very  rare  cases.  We  refer  to  the  gas  piping  of  'buildings  of  all 
classes.  The  gas  companies  have  made  practically  all  possible 
advances  in  processes  of  manufacture  and  distribution,  and 
while  there  may  be  unfairness  in  some  exceptional  instances, 
in  the  main  the  gas  consumers  have  largely  reaped  the  benefit  of 
the  resulting  economies. 

"Municipal  building  regulations  have  generally  prescribed  fairly 
wise  and  reasonable  general  rules  under  which  buildings  and  their 
various  structural  appointments  are  to  be  constructed,  but  on 
the  question  of  running  gas  lines  for  proper  distribution  within 
the  buildings  they  have  been  essentially  silent.  Architects  also 
virtually  have  turned  over  to  gas-fitters,  as  a  general  statement, 
the  whole  question  of  fitting  the  buildings  which  come  under  their 
design  and  supervision.  What  ought  to  be  everybody's  business 
seems  to  have  been  nobody's  business,  and  consequently  there 
probably  has  never  been  any  portion  of  the  construction  and 
fitting  of  a  building  which  has  exhibited  more  ignorance  and  gross 
blundering  than  the  general  run  of  the  gas-pipe  plans  of  many 
structures  now  standing,  and  that  is  saying  a  great  deal.  As  is 
almost  or  quite  the  invariable  result  in  such  matters  the  pur- 
chaser and  the  consumer  are  the  principal  sufferers.  It  certainly 
is  not  creditable  to  the  architect  or  engineer  thus  to  fail  to 
properly  specify,  or  generally  to  specify  at  all,  for  so  important  a 
part  of  his  work,  and  no  municipal  regulation  can  be  considered 
as  complete,  either  in  its  form  or  operation,  unless  it  suitably 
covers  a  class  of  work  which  so  immediately  affects  the  comfort 
and  health  of  almost  every  human  being  and  the  welfare  of  every 
business  within  its  corporate  limits.  It  is  the  legitimate  desire, 
of  course,  of  the  gas-fitter  to  reduce  the  total  cost  of  his  work  to 
a  minimum  for  his  client  and  he  gets  his  work  as  the  lowest  bidder; 
hence  the  result  is  all  but  a  universal  decrease  of  size  of  pipes  in  a 
building  far  below  those  which  ought  to  exist  for  a  proper  supply 
at  the  points  of  actual  consumption.  Besides,  a  lack  of  proper 
knowledge  of  design  causes  a  very  general  and  sometimes  an 
utterly  absurd  disproportion  between  the  main  and  running  lines 
and  branches,  which  results,  in  connection  with  the  fundamental 
difficulties  of  small  pipes,  in  excessive  complaints  from  users  in 
many  instances,  and  in  costly  and  inefficient,  if  usually  unnoticed, 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     35 

illumination  or  heating,  and  very  costly  alterations  and  additions 
to  the  piping  in  the  modern  fireproof  building. 

"Indeed  it  cannot  be  expected  that  gas-fitting  will  be  done 
carefully  and  efficiently  or  with  materials  and  workmanship  of 
excellent  quality  unless,  like  other  branches  of  mechanical  work, 
it  is  done  under  intelligent  specifications,  faithfully  executed. 

"It  is  true  that  there  have  been  a  few  very  creditable  efforts 
to  remedy  this  state  of  things,  but  they  may  be  said  almost  to  be 
included  in  the  excellent  little  work  by  William  Paul  Gerhard,1 
and  perhaps  the  unduly  short  printed  regulations  of  one  or  two 
gas  companies  in  the  country,  and  they  have  not  produced  any 
apparent  improvement  in  the  general  situation. 

"  Since  the  advent  of  high  buildings  with  fireproof  floors,  and 
the  demand  for  gas  for  cooking  and  heating  has  arisen,  the  embar- 
rassment due  to  the  causes  cited  has  been  more  pronounced. 
In  view,  therefore,  of  the  interests  involved,  the  Engineering 
Record,  in  pursuance  of  its  policy  to  elevate  and  advance  all 
branches  of  building  construction,  submits  to  architects  and  engi- 
neers, as  well  as  municipal  authorities,  a  general  system  of  speci- 
fications and  rules  under  which  buildings  may  be  fitted  with  gas 
pipes  so  as  to  produce  the  greatest  excellence  in  design  and  the 
most  efficient  and  economical  use  of  gas.  After  a  very  thorough 
examination  of  the  whole  question,  and  after  many  conferences 
with  large  firms  of  gas-fitters,  engineers  of  gas  works,  and  others 
directly  interested  in  the  attainment  of  the  desired  end,  the 
specifications,  tables,  and  rules,  which  we  print  in  another  column, 
have  been  prepared.  These  regulations  have  been  made  essen- 
tially to  agree  with  the  few  best  efforts  which  have  already  been 
made  for  the  same  purpose;  they  involve  no  conditions  incon- 
sistent with  the  best  interests  of  gas  consumers,  gas  producers,  or 
gas-fitters,  but  they  have  been  based  upon  such  reasonable  con- 
ditions as  will  secure  in  all  respects  the  best  practice  to  all  those 
departments  of  gas  interests.  The  tables  showing  the  sizes 
required  for  the  prescribed  number  of  burners,  logs,  heaters,  and 
ranges  are  based  upon  a  very  careful  and  thorough  investigation, 
both  analytical  and  experimental,  in  regard  to  the  flow  of  gas 
through  the  pipes  of  the  maximum  lengths  indicated.  The 
resulting  sizes  are  in  some  cases  a  little  larger  than  hitherto  pre- 
scribed, while  in  other  cases  they  are  not;  but  in  all  cases  they 
will  insure  the  free  flow  of  the  necessary  volume  of  gas,  and  thus 

l"  Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting."     Third  edition. 


36 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


entirely  avoid  the  annoyances  and  loss  due  to  too  small 
pipes.  The  slight  increase  of  cost  of  piping  from  this  source  is 
too  small  to  be  appreciable  in  the  total  cost  of  any  building 
whatever. 

"Should  it  be  desired  by  architects  or  engineers,  these  general 
regulations  can  be  easily  supplemented  by  other  clauses  or  para- 
graphs designed  to  cover  special  cases  or  details  which  it  would 
not  be  proper  or  suitable  to  recognize  in  the  concise  regulations 
designed  to  meet  the  purposes  of  those  wThich  we  print.  We 
commend  these  specifications  to  the  most  -careful  and  favorable 
consideration  of  architects,  gas  companies,  and  the  building 
departments  of  cities.  They  have  been  carefully  and  rationally 
designed  to  fill  a  gap  in  building  specifications  and  general  regu- 
lations which  has  been  the  cause  of  most  serious  and  widespread 
annoyance  and  loss." 


"  Essential  Requirements  for  the  Gas  Piping  of  Buildings." 

(From  the  Engineering  Record). 

"As  the  result  of  a  special  investigation  the  following  tables 
and  recommendations  are  submitted  as  the  basis  for  proper  speci- 
fications for  the  gas  piping  of  buildings  to  meet  the  demands 
of  modern  requirements  for  lighting,  heating,  cooking,  and  man- 
ufacturing : 


TABLE  II. 

SIZES    OF    GAS    PIPES,    MAXIMUM    LENGTHS    AND    MAXIMUM 
NUMBER  OF  BURNERS    (AT   6  CUBIC   FEET   EACH). 


Diameter 
of  Pipe. 

Maximum 

Length. 

Maximum 
Number  of 
Lights. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

f 

20 

2 

30 

3 

1 

40 

6 

1 

60 

10 

H 

70 

15 

H 

100 

30 

2 

150 

60 

The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     37 

TABLE  III. 
SIZES  OF  GAS  PIPES  FOR  GAS  LOGS  AND  COOKING  RANGES. 


Diameter 
of  Pipe. 

Maximum 
Length. 

Gas  Required  for  — 

Inches. 

Feet. 

* 

100 

1  cooking  burner  or  1  gas  log. 

100 

2  cooking  burners  or  2  gas  logs. 

1 

100 

Gas  cooking  stove  with  4  burners  or 

4  gas  logs. 

H 

100 

Larger  gas  ranges  or  7  gas  logs. 

Gas  logs  and  burners  of  cooking  ranges  are  assumed  to  have  a  consump- 
tion not  exceeding  35  cubic  feet  per  hour.  For  a  larger  consumption 
increase  the  size  of  pipe  supplying  log  or  range. 

General  Requirements. 

1.  All  lines  of  piping  throughout  the  building,  except  drops, 
must  be  laid  with  grade  so  as  to  drip  or  drain  back  into  the 
risers,  with  no  depressions  to  hold  condensation.     Drips  with 
drip  pipes  where  needed  must  be  provided  at  meters  and  at 
such  other  points  as  the  plan  of  piping  may  render  necessary. 

2.  No  riser  must  be  less  than  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter  in 
any  case,  and  all  risers  must  be  covered  up  on  inside  partitions  so 
as  to  be  thoroughly  protected  from  freezing.     Wherever  risers  or 
other  pipes  cannot  be  guarded  in  this  manner,  they  shall  be  pro- 
tected from  frost  by  special  and  effective  coverings. 

3.  Wherever  practicable  all  piping  shall  be  exposed,  but  piping 
that  must  be  concealed  shall  first  be  thoroughly  inspected  by  the 
gas  company,  and  the  gas-fitter  shall  give  due  notice  when  the 
piping  is  ready  for  inspection.     Unexposed  piping  must  be  so 
concealed  as  to  be  readily  accessible  in  case  of  examination  or 
repairs.     Wherever  practicable,  as  in  floors,  the  *  concealment 
shall  be  made  by  boards  over  the  pipes,  secured  by  brass  or  other 
non-corrosive  screws. 

4.  In  cases  where  extensions  are  made,  care  must  be  taken  to 
extend  with  such  sizes  that  the  rules  already  prescribed  shall  be 
maintained. 

5.  All  drop  pipes  must  be  left  perfectly  plumb  and  well  secured 
in  that  position. 

6.  Long  runs  of  piping  must  be  firmly  supported  at  frequent 
intervals  so  that  no  sagging  nor  depressions  can  occur  in  which 
condensation  can  collect. 


38 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


7.  If  pipes  run  across  wooden  beams  or  joists  the  requisite 
cutting,  notching,  or  boring  shall  never  be  more  than  2  inches  in 
depth  nor  more  than  3  feet  from  bearings,  and  as  near  the  latter 
as  possible. 

8.  Lines  of  piping  shall  not  be  placed  under  tiled  or  parquet 
floors,  marble  or  other  stone  or  metal  platforms,  or  under  hearth 
stones,  unless  the  local  conditions  render  such  procedures  impera- 
tively necessary. 

9.  All  pipes  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  of  wrought-iron  welded 
gas  pipe,  and  all  fittings,  including  couplings,  elbows,  bends,  tees, 
crosses,  reducers,  etc.,  under  2  inches  diameter,  shall  be  extra 
heavy  malleable  fittings ;  those  of  larger  diameter  may  be  of  cast 
iron.     These  pipes  and  fittings  may  be  plain,  galvanized,  or  made 
non-corrosive  by  any  effective  method. 

10.  Pipes  and  fittings  are  to  be  put  together  with  screw  joints 
and  red  lead,  or  red  and  white  lead  mixed,  with  joints  made  per- 
fectly gas-tight. 

11.  All  pipes  shall  be  firmly  and  safely  secured  in  position 
with  hooks,   wrought-iron  straps,   or  hold-fasts,  secured  with 
screws  at  close  intervals,  so  that  continued  use  in  proper  line  and 
grade  may  be  effectively  secured. 

12.  Meters  shall  be  placed  where  they  will  be  most  conven- 
iently accessible  for  reading  the  index  and  for  examination  and 
repairs,  and  when  placed  on  the  walls  the  minimum  height  above 
floors  shall  be  2  feet  for  the  bottom  of  the  smallest  meters,  and 
the  maximum  height  shall  be  8  feet  for  the  top  of  the  largest 
meters.    The  sizes  of  connections  shall  be  as  follows : 


TABLE  IV. 


3-light 

.     |  inch  diameter 

60-light 

2  inch  diameter 

5-light 

$  inch  diameter 

100-light 

2  inch  diameter. 

10-light 

1£  inch  diameter 

150-light 

2£  inch  diameter 

20-light 

1£  inch  diameter 

200-light 

2J  inch  diameter 

30-light 

li  inch  diameter 

250-light 

3  inch  diameter 

45-light 

1£  inch  diameter 

300-light 

4  inch  diameter 

13.  The  completed  piping  shall  be  tested  by  some  competent 
authority,  who  shall  give  a  written  certificate  of  the  results 
before  any  of  it  is  covered  at  any  point.  All  outlets  shall  be 
tightly  capped  and  the  whole  system  shall  be  tested  preferably 
with  a  mercury  gauge,  or  by  a  low-pressure  spring  gauge  which 


The  Arrangement  of  Gas  Pipes  in  Buildings     39 

has  been  recently  and  authoritatively  tested  by  a  mercury 
column.  When  air  is  pumped  into  a  completed  system  of  pipes 
until  the  pressure  reaches  12  inches  of  mercury  and  stands  or 
remains  stationary  for  five  minutes,  or  if  the  column  of  mercury 
does  not  fall  more  than  1  inch  per  hour,  the  system  may  be  con- 
sidered satisfactorily  tight.  Otherwise  leaks  must  be  sought 
and  stopped  and  the  testing  repeated  until  the  preceding 
requirements  are  satisfied.  While  extensions  to  completed 
systems  are  made  the  same  tests  shall  be  applied  to  the  ex- 
tensions before  they  are  put  in  use.  In  the  case  of  large  build- 
ings the  entire  system  may  be  tested  in  suitable  sections." 

I  will  close  this  chapter  by  giving  a  brief  summary  of  points 
which  building  superintendents  should  bear  in  mind  when  the 
building  is  being  piped  for  gas: 

Summary  of  Chief  Points  to  be  Observed  in  Piping  Buildings 

for  Gas. 

1.  The  layout  of  the  pipe  system  to  be  arranged  in  ample  and  propor- 
tionate sizes  according  to  the  table  of  sizes  of  gas  pipes  for  lamps,  gas 
logs,  gas  cooking  ranges,  and  for  gas  engines. 

2.  All  gas  pipes  to  run  to  fixture  outlets  as  directly  as  possible.     All 
pipes  to  be  graded  to  get  proper  drainage  back  to  the  rising  lines.     No 
depression  to  exist  in  the  running  lines.     All  accumulation  of  condensa- 
tion to  be  avoided.     Drip  pipes  or  emptying  siphons  to  be  put  in  wherever 
needed. 

3.  Xo  gas  riser  to  be  less  than  0 . 75  inch.     All  risers  to  be  protected 
against  cold  and  preferably  to  be  placed  on  inside  partitions.     The  use  of 
several  risers,  and  the  shortening  of  horizontal  distribution  lines  is  recom- 
mended to  avoid  excessive  cutting  of  timbers. 

4.  All  large  gas  risers  and  distributing  lines  to  be  kept  exposed  wher- 
ever possible,  or  to  be  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  reached  when  future 
repairs  or  additions  become  necessary,  without  entailing  damage  to  walls 
or  floors.     Smaller  gas  pipes,  when  to  be  concealed,  to  be  first  inspected 
and  tested.     All  concealed  pipes  in  floors  to  be  rendered  accessible  by 
boards  secured  by  brass  screws. 

5.  All  side  outlets  to  be  fed  by  risers  rather  than  drop  pipes  where  it 
is  possible  to  do  so. 

6.  Additions  and  extensions  to  the  gas  piping  of  a  building  to  be 
governed  as  regards  sizes  and  number  of  burners  by  the  table. 

7.  All  long  horizontal  runs  of  piping  to  be  firmly  supported. 

8.  Joists  to  be  cut  or  notched  not  more  than  two  inches  in  depth,  nor 
more  than  two  feet  from  bearing  walls. 


40  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

9.    No  gas  piping  to  be  placed  under  tile  or  parquet  floors,  marble, 
stone  or  metal  platforms,  or  hearth  stones. 

10.  The  gas  pipes  to  be  of  welded  wrought-iron.     The  fittings  under 
two  inches  to  be  extra-heavy  beaded  malleable-iron  fittings,  to  be  plain, 
galvanized,  or  otherwise  made  non-corrosive.     Fittings  larger  than  two 
inches  to  be  of  cast  iron. 

11.  The  joints  in  the  piping  to  be  screw  joints,  to  be  made  perfectly 
gas-tight.     Red  and  white  lead  mixed  to  be  used  as  a  lubricant  for  the 
threads. 

12.  All  gas  pipes  to  be  held  securely  in  position  by  wrought-iron  straps, 
hooks,  hold-fasts,  and  screws. 

13.  Gas  meters  to  be  placed  in  accessible  positions  for  the  sake  of  the 
reading  of  the  meter,  but  so  as  to  be  protected  from  injury.     Gas  meter 
connections  to  be  of  iron  pipe ;  no  lead  connections  to  be  used. 

14.  The  gas-piping  system,  when  completed,  to  be  tested.     All  outlets  to 
be  tightly  capped,  and  the  whole  piping  to  be  tested  by  mercury  gauge 
and  air  pump,  the  testing  pressure  to  be  from   12  to  18  inches  of  mer- 
cury (6  to  9  pounds  per  square  inch) ;  the  gauge  not  to  fall  more  than 
0 . 25  inch  per  hour.     All  leaks  to  be  sought  and  to  be  repaired  and  the 
test  to  be  repeated.     All  extensions  to  be  tested  in  the  same  way.     All 
larger  buildings  to  be  tested  in  sections. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SPECIFICATION   FOR    GAS   PIPING   FOR   COAL    OR   WATER    GAS. 

IN  piping  a  building  for  gas,  it  makes  some  difference  whether 
the  gas  supplied  is  manufactured  water  or  coal  gas,  or  whether 
it  is  natural  gas,  machine-made  air  gas,  or  finally  acetylene  gas. 

In  this  chapter  I  give  a  specification  prepared  by  me  and 
suitable  for  manufactured  city  gas.  In  later  chapters  special 
specifications  and  rules  are  given  governing  the  piping  where 
other  kinds  of  gas  are  intended  to  be  used. 

GAS-PIPING    SPECIFICATION. 

Gas  Service.  — To  be  of  wrought-iron  pipe,  of  ample  size;  to  be  run 
into  the  building  with  pitch  back  to  street  main,  where  possible;  or  else 
to  be  provided  with  siphon,  or  drip  pipe  and  emptying  plug,  where  service 
must  necessarily  be  graded  toward  the  house. 

Gas  service  to  be  protected  from  frost  wherever  necessarily  exposed. 

Gas  Meter.  —  To  be  preferably  a  dry  gas  meter;  to  be  of  ample  size;  all 
connections  to  be  preferably  of  wrought-iron  pipe  and  tube  of  full  bore. 

Fittings  to  be  beaded  malleable-iron  fittings.  No  lead  meter  connec- 
tions to  be  used. 

Meter  to  be  set  in  a  cool,  ventilated,  well-lighted  place,  easy  of  access, 
but  protected  from  accidental  injury. 

House  Gas  Pipes.  —  To  be  of  a  good  quality  of  welded  wrought-iron 
pipe,  preferably  galvanized. 

Steel  pipe,  being  somewhat  brittle,  is  not  so  good;  lead  gas  pipes  should 
not  be  permitted. 

Cast-iron  pipe  is  sometimes  used  for  services  larger  than  2 . 5  or  3  inches 
in  diameter. 

All  pipe  to  be  examined  and  blown  into,  before  being  used,  to  guard 
against  obstructions. 

Pipe  Fittings. — To  be  of  malleable  iron,  preferably  beaded  fittings; 
fittings  to  be  selected  and  examined  for  sandholes ;  galvanized  fittings  to 
be  preferred. 

In  making  turns  or  bends,  use  fittings  in  preference  to  bending  the  pipe. 

Joints.  —  To  be  screw  joints.  Use  red  and  white  lead  mixed,  or  boiled 
linseed  oil  in  joints. 

Use  precaution  not  to  get  any  lead  on  the  inside  of  joints. 

41 


42  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

No  gas-fitters'  cement  to  be  used  on  joints  under  any  circumstances. 

The  practice,  of  rusting  .up  the  pipes  by  filling  the  gas  pipes  with  water 
is  bad,  and  should  be  prohibited. 

Unions  should  be  avoided,  particularly  in  concealed  gas  piping;  if  re- 
quired, use  ground-joint  union  fittings. 

No  washer  joints  should  be  permitted. 

All  joints  must  be  made  absolutely  tight. 

Shut-Offs.  —  Use  the  best  quality  heavy  brass  work ;  round-way 
ground-key  lever  cocks  are  preferable  to  valves,  as  they  indicate  at  once 
by  position  of  lever,  whether  the  pipe  line  is  open  or  shut. 

Valves,  if  used,  should  be  soft-seat  brass  valves. 

Iron  valves  are  not  to  be  permitted,  as  they  quickly  corrode  from  the 
action  of  the  gas. 

Hooks,  Straps,  and  Clips.  —  All  pipes  to  be  well  fastened  by  hooks, 
straps,  or  clips  of  wrought  iron  —  not  of  cast  iron. 

Use  screws  for  fastening  pipe  hold-fasts. 

No  bent  nails  or  common  hooks  should  be  used  to  hold  gas  pipes  in 
position. 

Cutting  of  Floor  Joists.  —  This  should  never  be  done  by  the  gas-fitter. 

The  carpenter  to  d^tt  the  cutting,  and  beams  should  not  be  notched, 
bored,  or  cut  more  tflv  two  inches  in  depth,  and  never  farther  away 
from  wall  or  bearing,  Hpporting  the  beams,  than  two  feet. 

Sizes  of  House  Pipe^ —  Xo  pipe  to  be  less  than  three-eighths  inch ;  it  is 
better  to  make  0.5  inclPbhe  minimum  size. 

In  determining  sizes  of  pipes,  follow  Table  II  for  sizes  of  house  pipes 
for  gas  lighting  (see  page  36),  and  Table  III  (see  page  37)  for  sizes  of  gas 
pipes  for  gas  ranges  and  gas  logs. 

Make  all  piping  ample  in  size. 

Arrangement  of  Gas  Piping.  —  No  risers  to  be  placed  in  outside  walls. 

No  riser  to  be  less  than  0 . 75  inch. 

A  number  of  separate  risers  is  desirable;  these  should  be  connected  at 
the  top,  for  a  better  circulation  of  the  gas,  and  also  to  avoid  undue  varia- 
tion in  the  gas  pressure. 

Another  method  of  accomplishing  this  is  to  have  separate  risers  for  each 
floor. 

For  gas  logs  in  fireplaces,  run  entirely  separate  risers,  one  for  each 
group  of  vertical  fireplaces. 

Provide  a  separate  riser  for  the  gas  cooking  range  in  the  kitchen. 

Provide  a  separate  riser  for  the  gas  water-heater,  also  for  the  gas  laundry- 
irons. 

A  separate  meter  for  gas,  used  in  cooking  or  heating  is  desirable. 

Larger  risers  to  be  kept  exposed  in  closets;  smaller  pipes  to  be  tested 
before  being  covered  up  or  plastered  over. 

Running  lines  in  floors  to  be  kept  accessible  by  floor  boards,  secured 
with  brass  screws  instead  of  nails. 


Specifications  for  Gas  Piping  43 

Run  all  branches  for  side  or  wall  fixtures  up  from  below,  and  do  not 
drop  them  from  above  (except  in  the  cellar). 

Place  no  running  gas  lines  under  tiled  floors  or  hearths. 

Run  no  gas  pipes  through  flues. 

Supply  drop  fixtures  from  "branches,  taken  off  from  side  or  top  of  run- 
ning lines;  never  drop  the  branch  from  the  bottom  of  a  line. 

All  horizontal  gas  pipes  to  be  run  with  sufficient  fall  back  to  the  riser; 
the  horizontal  run  at  cellar  ceilings  to  have  a  fall  toward  the  gas  meter. 

All  long  horizontal  runs  between  floor  beams  to  be  well  supported  to 
avoid  sagging  and  traps. 

Avoid  all  condensation  of  gas  in  pockets  or  depressions. 

Keep  gas  pipes  and  risers  away  from  pipes  or  flues  of  the  heating 
apparatus. 

Gas  Outlets.  —  Place  no  gas  outlets  behind  doors  or  too  near  window 
trims  or  curtains. 

Place  outlets  for  side-wall  fixtures  at  proper  height,  and  center  fixtures 
in  the  exact  center  of  the  room. 

At  completion  of  gas  piping,  check  off  all  outlets  from  plans. 

^take  all  nipples  and  drops  plumb,  and  of  proper  length  for  the  fixtures. 

Test  of  Gas-Pipe  System.  —  The  entire  gas  piping,  when  completed, 
and  before  plastering  is  begun,  to  be  tested  by  a  gas-fitter  with  an  air 
pump  and  a  mercury  gauge  (22  inches  long) ;  spring  gauges  are  not  reliable. 

Test  the  pipe  system  under  a  pressure  equivalent  to  a  column  of  mercury 
in  gauge,  18  inches  high  (9  pounds  pressure). 

The  mercury  in  the  gauge  must  stand  one  hour  without  indicating  a 
greater  fall  than  0.25  inch  per  hour. 

All  leaks  and  defects,  which  the  test  reveals,  to  be  searched  for  with  ether 
or  by  the  application  of  soapsuds;  the  same  to  be  made  good  by  gas-fitter. 

Xo  split  pipe  or  broken  fitting,  or  fitting  having  sandholes,  to  be  repaired 
with  cement  or  solder. 

In  large  buildings,  test  gas  piping  in  sections. 

After  the  test,  have  a  number  of  capped  outlets  opened  slowly,  on  each 
of  the  floors,  to  make  sure  by  the  falling  of  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  that 
the  entire  piping  has  been  under  the  test,  and  that  no  parts  are  acci- 
dentally or  intentionally  disconnected. 

After  test,  leave  all  outlets  capped  tightly. 

When  alterations  in  the  gas  are  made,  or  additional  burners  are  put  in, 
test  the  altered  work  in  same  manner  as  in  the  first  test. 

Before  the  gas  fixtures  are  hung  or  put  up,  the  gas-fitter  is  to  repeat 
the  test  in  the  presence  of  the  contractor  for  the  gas  fixtures,  so  as  to 
demonstrate  to  him  the  tightness  of  the  entire  piping. 

This  leaves  the  fixture  man  responsible  for  any  leaks  discovered  when 
the  gas  is  first  turned  on  at  fixtures. 

After  fixtures  are  hung,  the  contractor  for  the  fixtures  to  apply  another 
pressure  test,  with  three  inches  of  mercury  in  the  gauge. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RULES,   TABLES  AND   REGULATIONS  OF   GAS   COMPANIES  AND 
OF   BUILDING  DEPARTMENTS. 

ONE  of  the  chief  faults  of  gas  piping,  as  commonly  done  by 
gas-fitters,  is  that  too  much  small  pipe  is  put  into  the  work.  To 
determine  by  calculation  the  sizes  of  pipe  required,  at  least  for 
the  main  risers  and  distributing  lines,  appears  to  the  ordinary 
gas-fitter  to  be  an  ultra-refinement  not  worthy  of  a  serious 
thought;  but,  worse  than  that,  even  the  handy  tables,  gotten 
up  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  tedious  calculations  unnecessary, 
are  neither  consulted  nor  followed  by  him. 

Before  giving  a  number  of  rules  and  regulations  of  gas  com- 
panies, I  should,  perhaps,  discuss  briefly  the  flow  of  gas  through 
pipes,  and  the  formula  used  to  determine  the  theoretical  dis- 
charge. Many  of  the  tables,  embodied  in  some  of  the  rules 
given  later  on,  should  be  used  cautiously,  because  the  sizes  and 
gas  discharges  therein  given  apply  to  large  and  smooth  pipes. 
For  this  reason  the  advice  will  be  found  in  some  of  the  tables  to 
increase  the  sizes,  in  case  rough  or  old  iron  pipes  are  used.  The 
English  tables  generally  are  based  upon  the  assumption  that 
the  gas  pipes  are  of  smooth  lead,  a  material  which  is  not  used  in 
the  American  practice  of  gas-fitting. 

But  even  some  of  the  American  tables  recently  published  (for 
instance  those  of  the  United  Gas  Improvement  Co.,  of  Philadel- 
phia) have  increased  the  required  pipe  sizes  materially  to  make 
proper  allowance  for  partial  stoppages,  due  to  gradual  accumu- 
lations of  rust  and  condensed  naphthaline  in  the  pipes. 

The  formula  almost  universally  used  for  the  flow  of  gas 
through  pipes  is  that  by  Dr.  William  Pole,  and  reads  as  follows: 


Q  =  1350<PV  ..................    (1). 

X  I 


44 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   45 

in  which  formula 

s  =  specific  gravity  of  gas,  air  being  taken  as  1.00, 

I  =  length  of  pipe  in  yards, 

d  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches, 

h  =  pressure  of  gas  in  inches  of  water, 

Q  =  quantity  of  gas  delivered  in  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

The  specific  gravity  is  often  taken  as  equal  to  0.40.  For  any 
other  specific  gravity  the  value  of  Q  should  be  multiplied  by 
0.635  or  V0.40,  and  divided  by  the  square  root  of  the  specific 
gravity. 

To  find  the  theoretical  diameter  required  for  a  given  dis- 
charge, we  derive  from  the  above  formula  the  following: 


*••*'  (2). 


In  making  calculations  of  this  kind  it  will  be  found  conven- 
ient to  make  use  of  logarithmic  tables,  and  in  that  case  the 
above  formula  may  be  expressed: 

log  d  =  0.2  [2  log  Q  +  log  s  +  log  I  -  2  log  1350  -  log  h].  .    (3). 

The  value  of  (d)  so  obtained  applies  only  to  large,  new  and 
smooth  pipes.  The  discharge  for  small  pipes  is  less  than 
the  calculated  quantity,  hence  the  value  of  (d)  should  be 
increased  one-third  for  lead  pipes,  and  at  least  one-half  for  iron 
pipes. 

The  following  table,  originally  published  by  Clegg,  and 
republished  in  Newbigging's  Handbook,  gives  the  diameter  of 
pipes,  in  decimals  of  an  inch,  for  the  supply  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  burners,  each  of  5  cubic  feet  per  hour,  under  one  inch 
pressure,  at  various  distances  from  the  main  pipe : 

The  following  example  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the 
table  is  used.  Suppose  there  are  50  burners  to  be  supplied  hi  a 
building  at  a  distance  of  150  feet  from  the  main,  then  the  tabu- 
lar number  opposite  150  and  under  50  is  0.93688.  Add  to  this 
50  per  cent  for  an  iron  pipe  and  we  find  1.405,  or  a  one  and  one- 
half-inch  pipe,  as  the  size  required. 

Experiments  on  the  discharge  of  gas  pipes  tend  to  confirm 
the  statement  that  the  actual  discharge  is  considerably  kss  than 
the  theoretical  quantity  deduced  from  the  Pole  formula  (1).  A 


46 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


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Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   47 

table,  based    on    such   experiments,  is  given  by  Hurst,  which 
illustrates  this: 

DIAMETER  OF   PIPE    1   INCH. 

(Discharge  by  Experiment.) 


Length  of  Pipe  in  Yards. 

10 

20 

30 

•    50 

Cubic  feet  per  hour  under  1  inch  pressure 

337 

233 

190 

148 

Cubic  feet  per  hour  under  1.25  inch  pressure 

368 

260 

212 

164 

DIAMETER  OF   PIPE    1   INCH 
(Discharge  by  Pole  Formula.) 


Length  of  Pipe  in  Yards. 

10 

20 

30 

50 

Cubic  feet  per  hour,  1  inch  pressure     .... 

675 

476 

389 

301 

Cubic  feet  per  hour,  1.25  inch  pressure  .    .    . 

738 

522 

427 

329 

in  other  words,  the  actual  discharge  was  only  one-half  that 
given  by  the  formula. 

The  smaller  the  gas  pipes  are,  the  greater  is  their  liability  to 
become  obstructed  with  tarry  matter,  naphthalene,  rust  or  water. 

The  following  table  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Schilling,  the  well- 
known  gas  expert  of  Munich,  from  actual  experiments.  It 
makes  provision  for  the  rusting  of  pipes,  for  friction  in  small 
pipes,  and  for  a  general  surplus  capacity  of  25  per  cent. 


LENGTH  OF   PIPE   IN   FEET. 


Ins.de 

20     30     40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

1      1 

Inch. 

i      1 

4 

3 

2 

1 

10     7 

0 

4 

3 

2 

1 

i 

25 

14 

10 

8 

6 

5 

4 

3 

3 

2 

i 

60 

38 

26 

19 

15 

12 

10 

8 

7 

6 

U 

100 

64 

42 

32 

25 

20 

16 

13 

10 

8 

H 

150 

95 

65 

48 

37 

30 

25 

20 

16 

13 

350 

228 

156 

114 

90 

70 

60 

50 

40 

25 

Number  of  Burners  at  5  cubic  feet  per  hour  each. 

In  making  computations  of  discharges  of  gas  pipes  it  will  be 
found  useful  to  bear  the  following  axioms  in  mind: 


48 


Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


1.  The  discharge  of  gas  is  doubled  if  the  length  of  pipe  is 
divided  by  four. 

2.  The  discharge  of  gas  is  reduced  to  one-half  if  the  length 
is  increased  four  times. 

3.  The  discharge  of  gas  is  doubled  if  the  pressure  of  gas  is 
increased  four  times. 

4.  The  delivering  capacity  of  a  pipe  of  given  diameter  varies 
directly  as  the  square  root  of  the  pressure  and  inversely  as  the 
square  root  of  the  length. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  also  has  some  effect  on  the 
volume  delivered,  for  the  formula  shows  that  the  smaller  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  gas,  the  larger  will  be  the  discharge. 

This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table,  which  I  take  from 
the  "Handbook  of  American  Gas  Engineering  Practice,"  by 
'M.  Nisbet-Latta  (1907).  In  this  table  the  loss  of  head  or  pres- 
sure is  in  each  case  taken  at  0.1  inch  in  30  feet  length. 


TABLE  OF  CAPACITY  OF  GAS  PIPES  OF  THE  LENGTH  AND 
DIAMETER  GIVEN,  IN  CUBIC  FEET  PER  HOUR  FOR  VARI- 
OUS SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES. 


Diameter  of  Pipe  in 

Length  of 

0.42. 

Specific  Gravity 
0.55. 

rj 

0.68. 

Inches. 

Pipe  in  Feet. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

i 

20 

18 

16 

14 

\  • 

30 

37 

32 

29 

i  

50 

101 

88 

80 

1  0 

70 

210 

180 

162 

u 

100 

360 

310 

280 

U   . 

150 

577 

500 

450 

2.0  

200 

1200 

1030 

930 

2i 

300 

2050 

1800 

1610 

3.0  . 

450 

3300 

2850 

2560 

As  a  rule,  tables  of  gas  pipes  give  the  number  of  burners 
which  can  be  supplied  from  a  pipe  of  given  size  and  length, 
under  a  certain  pressure  of  gas.  In  many  respects,  it  is  much 
more  convenient  to  have  the  tables  express  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  gas  which  pipes  are  capable  of  discharging  per  unit  time. 
This  is  so,  for  instance,  in  the  table  below,  quoted  from  an  Eng- 
lish book  by  Grafton, 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   49 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  OF  GAS  PER 
HOUR  SUPPLIED  FROM  PIPES  OF  DIFFERENT  DIAM- 
ETERS AND  LENGTHS  UNDER  10/10  INCHES  PRESSURE. 

(W.  GRAFTON.) 


Length  of  Pipe  in  Feet. 

Diameter 

of  Pipe. 

45 

75 

150 

225 

300 

Inch. 

1 

44 

40 

37 

32 

27 

114 

108 

95 

78 

67 

1 

223 

212 

187 

152 

128 

H 

388 

368 

323 

263 

222 

H 

613 

590 

507 

413 

345 

2 

1280 

1225 

1070 

880 

750 

2* 

2220 

2115 

1820 

1520 

1270 

3 

3497 

3330 

2880 

2370 

1975 

4 

7170 

6800 

5875 

4820 

4025 

If  it  is  proposed  to  use  a  burner  of  a  certain  size,  consuming 
a  certain  number  of  cubic  feet  per  hour,  divide  the  cubic  feet 
in  the  table  by  the  capacity  of  the  burner  per  hour;  the  result 
is  the  number  of  burners,  which  can  be  supplied  by  a  pipe  of 
certain  size  and  length. 

Should  the  gas  pressure  exceed  10/10  inches  of  water,  apply 
the  rule  that  the  carrying  capacities  of  pipes  are  increased 
directly  as  the  square  root  of  the  pressure,  and  inversely  as  the 
square  root  of  the  length. 

See  also  Table  on  page  77. 


GAS-PIPING  RULES  OF  THE   OLD  MANHATTAN  GAS  COMPANY 
OF  NEW  YORK. 


Size  of 
Tubing. 

Greatest 
Length  Al- 
lowed. 

Greatest  No.  of 
Burners. 

Size  of  Meters. 

Greatest  No.  of 
Burners. 

£  inch 

6  feet 

1  burner 

3-light 

6  burners 

|  inch 

20  feet 

3  burners 

5-light 

10  burners 

$  inch 

30  feet 

6  burners 

10-light 

20  burners 

f  inch 

50  feet 

20  burners 

10-light 

40  burners 

1    inch 

70  feet 

35  burners 

30-light 

60  burners 

H  inch 

100  feet 

60  burners 

45-light 

90  burners 

1}  inch 

150  feet 

100  burners 

60-light 

120  burners 

2    inch 

200  feet 

200  burners 

100-light 

200  burners 

50 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


In  the  following  pages,  I  give  a  compilation  of  a  number  of 
rules  and  regulations  of  different  American  cities,  my  purpose 
in  doing  so  being  to  give  a  true  picture  of  the  present  American 
practice  of  piping  buildings  for  gas.  A  few  rules  and  tables  from 
English,  French  and  German  gas-engineering  practice  are  added 
for  the  sake  of  comparison. 


SPECIFICATIONS   OF   THE   CONSOLIDATED   GAS   COMPANY 
OF   NEW  YORK   FOR   HOUSE   PIPING. 

The  following  specifications  for  gas  piping  should  be  observed,  in  order 
to  secure  the  company's  acceptance  and  certificate: 

1.  The  piping  must  be  tight  under  a  pressure  of  10  inches  of  a  mercury 
column.     This  test  will  be  made  before  the  fixtures  are  hung,  and  after 
the  piping  is  closed  in. 

The*  use  of  cement  for  repairs  to  leaks  is  to  be  avoided. 

2.  The  sizes  of  pipe  shall  not  be  less  than  those  called  for  in  the 
following  table : 


Size  of  Pipe. 

Greatest  Length  Allowed. 

Greatest  Number  of 
Burners. 

|  inch 

20  feet 

3  burners 

\  inch 

25  feet 

6  burners 

f  inch 

40  feet 

20  burners 

1    inch 

60  feet 

30  burners 

\\  inch 

100  feet 

60  burners 

\\  inch 

150  feet 

100  burners 

2    inch 

200  feet 

200  burners 

2£  inch 

300  feet 

300  burners 

3    inch 

450  feet 

400  burners 

4    inch 

600  feet 

700  burners 

The  foregoing  table  shows,  for  any  given  number  of  outlets,  the  greatest 
length  allowed  for  each  size  of  pipe. 

The  following  rules  should  also  be  observed : 

3.  No  house  riser  shall  be  less  than  0.75  inch. 

4.  No  house  pipe  shall  be  less  than  0.375  inch. 

5.  No  branching  for  a  range  shall  be  smaller  than  0.5  inch. 

6.  Gas  is  never  to  be  supplied  from  a  smaller  pipe  to  a  larger  one. 

7.  No  pipe  smaller  than  0 . 5  inch  shall  be  used  between  outlet  of  meter 
and  outlet  of  range  pipe. 

8.  Piping  must  be  free  from  obstructions. 

9.  Of  any  given  size  pipe,  do  not  run  a  longer  length  than  the  longest 
length  given  in  the  table  for  that  size. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   51 

10.  In  figuring  out  the  size  of  pipe,  always  start  at  the  outlets,  or 
extremities  of  the  system,  and  work  toward  the  meter. 

11.  White  lead  or  other  joining  material  should  be  used  sparingly  so 
as  not  to  clog  the  pipe. 

12.  All  pipe  should  be  blown  through  after  being  connected,  to  make 
sure  it  is  clear. 

13.  The  piping  must  be  free  from  traps. 

14.  All  pipe  should  grade  back  toward  the  riser,  and  thence  to  the  meter. 

15.  Pipe  laid  in  a  cold,  damp  place  should  be  properly  dripped  and 
protected. 

16.  The  riser  must  be  extended  to  u  point  within  24  inches  of  the  pro- 
posed location  of  the  meter. 

17.  In  piping  new  houses  the  gas  company  is  to  decide  where  the  gas 
meter  should  be  located,  and  the  fitter  shall  extend  the  riser  to  terminate 
within  2  feet  of  this  point. 

18.  The  location  of  meters  shall  not  be  under  stoops  or  sidewalks,  near 
furnaces  or  ovens,  or  such  as  to  render  the  meter  inaccessible  or  liable  to 
injury. 

19.  When,  to  accommodate  different  tenants,  one  or  more  meters  are 
desired  in  a  given  building,  the  company  will  set  as  many  meters  as  there 
are  separate  consumers,  connecting  the  meters  to  one  service  pipe,  pro- 
vided that  the  risers  or  pipes  leading  to  these  different  tenants  are  extended 
to  within  2  feet  of  the  location  of  the  meters. 

20.  As  far  as  possible,  meters  should  stand  side  by  side  in  the  cellar  or 
basement,  and  fitters  should  obtain  from  the  gas  company  the  proper 
size  of  the  meter  to  set,  and  also  the  spacing  for  outlets  in  header. 

21.  Risers  should  not  be  scattered,  but  should  drop  together  in  align- 
ment  to  the   cellar   or  basement.     They  should  not  extend  more  than 
3  inches  below  the  ceiling,  and  they  should  be  kept  at  least  3  inches 
apart. 

22.  Xo  elbow  should  be  put  on  the  bottom  of  any  riser  or  rising  service, 
but  the  bottom  of  all  risers  should  have  a  "  T." 

23.  In  making  outlets,  always  use  fittings;  do  not  bend  the  pipe. 

24.  Unions  should  not  be  used  in  concealed  work. 

25.  Long  runs  of  horizontal  pipe  should  be  firmly  supported  at  short 
intervals  to  prevent  sagging. 

26.  All  branch  outlet  pipes  should  be  taken  from  the  sides  or  tops  of 
running  lines,  never  from  below. 

27.  Bracket  lines  should  be  run  up  from  below  when  practicable. 
Rules  28,  29  and  30  are  omitted,  being  the  same  as  those  on  page  57 

of  the  Philadelphia  Rules. 

31.  The  use  of  galvanized  pipe  for  gas  is  to  be  avoided  on  account  of 
the  chemical  action  between  the  condensation  in  the  gas  and  the  covering 
on  the  pipe,  which  has  a  tendency  eventually  to  result  in  the  obstruction 
of  the  pipe. 


52  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

32.  Galvanized  iron  fittings  are  not  so  objectionable,  as  the  galvanizing 
tends  to  close  the  pores,  which  are  frequent  in  malleable  or  cast-iron 
fittings. 

33.  In  piping  residences  a  0 . 5-inch  line,  or  preferably  a  0 . 75-inch  line 
should  be  run  from  a  point  near  the  meter  to  the  kitchen,  to  provide  for 
a  gas  range.     This  line  should  terminate  about  15  inches  from  the  floor, 
when  protruding  from  a  wall. 

34.  In  piping  for  prepayment  meters  in  buildings  which  have  on  a 
floor  four  families,  the  following  plans  should  be  carried  out:    The  pipe 
from  the  service  to  the  bottom  of  the  front  riser  should  be  1 . 25  inches ; 
from  the  bottom  of  the  front  riser  to  the  bottom  of  the  rising  services  it 
should  be  1  inch,  to  within  two  floors  of  roof,  where  0.75  inch  may  be 
substituted.     All  openings  to  be  left  shall  be  at  least  0 . 5  inch. 

35.  Prepayment  meters  will  not  be  set  in  bedrooms;  and  all  prepayment 
meters  must  be  set  within  the  apartment. 

36.  Before  piping  a  building  for  prepayment  meters,  fitters  should 
consult  the  gas  company  to  avoid  mistakes. 

37.  The  running  of  gas  pipes  on  the  inside  of  outside  walls  is  to  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible;  owing  to  the  exposed  location,  they  are 
easily  stopped  by  frost,  and  are  often  a  source  of  annoyance  during  the 
cold  weather. 

38.  When  the  fitter  has  completed  the  system  of  piping,  made  the  test, 
and  found  the  pipes  tight,  he  should  promptly  notify  the  company.     An 
appointment  will  be  made,  and  the  company's  inspector  will  call  and 
witness  the  test.     If  the  pipes  are  found  tight,  the  following  certificate 
will  be  issued : 

39.  This  is  to  certify  that  the  Consolidated  Gas  Company  of  New  York, 

has  inspected  the  piping  at  No. Street,  and  has  found 

it  to  be  gas-tight.  . 

As  any  injury  may  occur  to  the  piping  subsequent  to  this  inspection, 
its  future  soundness  is  not  guaranteed. 

CONSOLIDATED  GAS  COMPANY  OF  NEW  YORK. 
Date By —    Inspector. 

40.  During  the  inspection,  the  fitter  or  his  representative  must  be 
present. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   53 


FROM  SUPPLEMENT  TO  RULES  FOR  PLUMBING  AND 
DRAINAGE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  BUREAU  OF  BUILDINGS 
FOR  THE  BOROUGH  OF  MANHATTAN,  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

Gas  Piping  and  Fixtures. 

1.  Hereafter  the  gas  piping  and  fixtures  in  all  new  buildings,  and  all 
alterations  and  extensions  made  to  the  gas  piping  or  fixtures  in  old 
buildings,  must  be  done  in  accordance  with  the  following  rules,  which 
are  made  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  Section  89  of  the  Building 
Code. 

For  additional  requirements  of  public  buildings,  theaters,  and  places 
of  assemblage,  see  Part  XXI,  of  the  Building  Code. 

2.  Before  the  construction  or  alteration  of  any  gas  piping  in  any 
building  or  part  of  any  building,  a  permit  must  be  obtained  from  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings.     This  permit  will  be  issued  only  to  a  regis- 
tered plumber.     Application  must  be  made  and  complete  floor  plans 
filed,  showing  each  and  every  outlet,  and  the  number  of  burners  to  go 
on  each  outlet  before  beginning  work.     Small  alterations  may  be  made 
by  notifying  the  Bureau  of  Buildings,  using  the  same  blank  forms  pro- 
vided for  alterations  and  repairs  to  plumbing. 

3.  All  gas  pipe  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  wrought  iron,  and  of  the 
kind  and  weight  classed  as  standard  pipe. 

No  pipe  allowed  of  less  than  0.375  inch  in  diameter. 

4.  All  fittings  (excepting  stopcocks  or  valves)  shall  be  of   malleable 
iron.     All  bends  or  angles  in  the  piping  system  must  be  made  by  means 
of  fittings.     The  bending  of  pipes  will  not  be  permitted. 

5.  There  shall  be  a  heavy  brass  straightway  cock  or  valve  on  the 
service  pipe  immediately  inside  the  front  foundation  wall.     Iron  cocks 
or  valves  are  not  permitted. 

6.  Where  it  is  not  impracticable  so  to  do,  all  risers  shall  be  left  not 
more  than  five  feet  from  front  wall. 

7.  No  pipe  shall  be  laid  so  as  to  support  any  weight  (except  fixtures) 
or  be  subjected  to  any  strain  whatsoever.     All  pipe  shall  be  properly 
laid  and  fastened  to  prevent  becoming  trapped,  and  shall  be  laid,  when 
practicable,  above  timbers  or  beams  instead  of  beneath  them. 

Where  running  lines  or  branches  cross  beams,  they  must  do  so  within 
thirty-six  inches  of  the  end  of  the  beams,  and  in  no  case  shall  the  said 
pipes  be  let  into  the  beams  more  than  two  inches  in  depth. 

Any  pipe  laid  in  a  cold  or  damp  place  shall  be  properly  dripped,  pro- 
tected, and  painted  with  two  coats  of  red  lead  and  boiled  oil,  or  tarred. 

8.  No  gas  pipe  shall  be  laid  in  cement  or  concrete  unless  the  pipe  or 
channel  in  which  it  is  placed  is' well  covered  with  tar. 

9.  All  drops  must  be  set  plumb  and  securely  fastened,  each  one 


54 


Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


having  at  least  one  solid  strap.  Drops  and  outlets  less  than  0.75  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  shall  not  be  left  more  than  one  inch  below  plastering, 
centerpieces,  or  woodwork. 

10.  All  outlets  and  risers  shall  be  left  capped  until  covered  by  fixtures. 

11.  No  unions  or  running  threads  shall  be  permitted.     Where  necessary 
to  cut  out  to  repair  leaks  or  make  extensions,  pipe  shall  be  again  put 
together  with  right  and  left  couplings. 

12.  No  gas-fitters'  cement  shall  be  used,  except  in  putting  fixtures 
together. 

13.  All  gas  brackets  and  fixtures  shall  be  placed  so  that  the  burners  of 
the  same  are  not  less  than  three  feet  below  any  ceiling  or  woodwork, 
unless  the  same  is  properly  protected  by  a  shield,  in  which  case  the  dis- 
tance shall  not  be  less  than  eighteen  inches. 

14.  No  swinging  or  folding  gas  brackets  shall  be  placed  against  any 
stud,  partition  or  woodwork. 

15.  No  gas  bracket  on  any  lath  and  plaster  partition  or  woodwork 
shall  be  less  than  five  inches  in  length,  measured  from  the  burner  to  the 
plaster  surface  or  woodwork. 

Gas  lights  placed  near  window  curtains  or  any  other  combustible 
material  shall  be  protected  by  a  proper  shield. 

14.  Gas  outlets  for  burners  shall  not  be  placed  under  tanks,  back  of 
doors,  or  within  four  feet  of  any  meter. 

15.  All  buildings  shall  be  piped  according  to  the  following  scale : 


Diameter. 

Length. 

Burners. 

Diameter. 

Length. 

Burners. 

|  inch 

26  feet 

3 

1J  inch      .    .    . 

150  feet 

100 

\  inch 

36  feet 

6 

2    inch      .    .    . 

200  feet 

200 

\  inch 

60  feet 

20 

1\  inch      .    .    . 

300  feet 

300 

1    inch 

80  feet 

35 

3    inch      .    .    . 

450  feet 

450 

\\  inch 

110  feet 

60 

4    inch      .    .    . 

600  feet 

750 

16.  Outlets  for  gas  ranges  shall  have  a  diameter  not  less  than  required 
for  six  burners,  and  all  gas  ranges  and  heaters  shall  have  a  straightway 
cock  on  service  pipe. 

17.  When  brass  piping  is  used  on  the  outside  of  plastering  or  woodwork 
it  shall  be  classed  as  fixtures. 

18.  All  brass  tubing  used  for  arms  and  stems  of  fixtures  shall  be  at 
least  No.  18  standard  gauge  and  full  size  outside,  so  as  to  cut  a  full  thread. 
All  threads  on  brass  pipe  shall  screw  in  at  least  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch. 
All  rope  or  square  tubing  shall  be  brazed  or  soldered  into  fittings  and 
distributors,  or  have  a  nipple  brazed  into  the  tubing. 

19.  All  cast  fittings,  such  as  cocks,  swing  joints,  double  centers,  nozzles, 
etc.,  shall  be  extra  heavy  brass.     The  plugs  of  all  cocks  must  be  ground 
to  a  smooth  and  true  surface  for  their  entire  length,  be  free  from  sand- 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   55 

holes,  have  not  less  than  0. 75  of  an  inch  bearing  (except  in  cases  of  special 
design),  have  two  flat  sides  on  the  end  for  the  washer,  and  have  two  nuts 
instead  of  a  tail  screw.  All  stop-pins  to  keys  or  cocks  shall  be  screwed 
into  place. 

20.  After  all  piping  is  fitted  and  fastened,  and  all  outlets  capped  up, 
there  must  be  applied  by  the  plumber,  in  the  presence  of  an  Inspector  of 
the  Bureau  of  Buildings,  a  test  with  air  to  a  pressure  equal  to  a  column 
of  mercury  six  inches  in  height,  and  the  same  shall  stand  for  five  minutes; 
only  mercury  testing  gauges  shall  be  used.     No  pipes  shall  be  covered  up, 
nor  shall  any  fixture,  gas-heater  or  range  be  connected  thereto  until   a 
card  showing  the  approval  of  this  test  has  been  issued  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Buildings. 

21.  Xo  meter  will  be  set  by  any  gas  company  until  a  certificate  is  filed 
with  them  from  the  Bureau  of  3uildings  certifying  that  the  gas  pipes  and 
fixtures  comply  with  the  foregoing  rules. 

22.  When  for  any  reason  it  may  be  impracticable  to  comply  strictly 
with  the  foregoing  rules,  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  shall  have  power 
to  modify  their  provisions  so  that  the  spirit  and  substance  thereof  shall 
be  complied  with.     Such  modification  shall  be  indorsed  upon  the  permit 
over  the  signature  of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 


OTHER    SECTIONS    OF    THE    BUILDING    CODE    APPLICABLE 
TO    GAS    PIPING. 

Gas  and  Water  Pipes. 

Every  building  other  than  a  dwelling  house,  hereafter  erected,  and  all 
factories,  hotels,  churches,  theaters,  schoolhouses,  and  other  buildings 
of  a  public  character  now  erected,  in  which  gas  or  steam  is  used  for  light- 
ing or  heating,  shall  have  the  supply  pipes  leading  from  the  street  mains 
provided  each  with  a  stopcock  placed  in  the  sidewalk  at  or  near  the  curb, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  shutting  off  at  that  point. 

No  gas,  water,  or  other  pipes  which  may  be  introduced  into  any  building 
shall  be  let  into  the  beams  unless  the  same  be  placed  writhin  thirty-six 
inches  of  the  end  of  the  beams;  and  in  no  building  shall  the  said  pipes  be 
let  into  the  beams  more  than  two  inches  in  depth. 

All  said  pipes  shall  be  installed  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations prescribed  by  the  Board  of  Buildings. 

All  gas  brackets  shall  be  placed  at  least  three  feet  below  any  ceiling  or 
woodwork,  unless  the  same  is  properly  protected  by  a  shield;  in  which 
case  the  distance  shall  not  be  less  than  eighteen  inches. 

No  swinging  or  folding  gas  bracket  shall  be  placed  against  any  stud, 
partition  or  woodwork. 


56  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

No  gas  bracket  on  any  lath-and-plaster  partition  or  woodwork  shall  be 
less  than  five  inches  in  length,  measured  from  the  burner  to  the  plaster 
surface  or  woodwork. 

Gas  lights  placed  near  window  curtains  or  any  other  combustible 
material  shall  be  protected  by  a  proper  shield. 


Gas-Piping  Regulations  for  Theaters  and  Places  of  Assembly. 

Every  portion  of  the  building  devoted  to  the  uses  or  accommodation 
of  the  public,  also  all  outlets  leading  to  the  streets,  and  including  the 
open  courts  and  corridors,  shall  be  well  and  properly  lighted  during  every 
performance,  and  the  same  shall  remain  lighted  until  the  entire  audience 
has  left  the  premises.  All  gas  or  electric  lamps  in  the  halls,  corridors, 
lobbies,  or  any  other  part  of  said  buildings  used  by  the  audience,  except 
the  auditorium,  must  be  controlled  by  a  separate  shut-off,  located  in  the 
lobby  and  controlled  only  in  that  particular  place. 

Gas  mains  supplying  the  building  shall  have  independent  connections 
for  the  auditorium  and  the  stage,  and  provisions  shall  be  made  for  the 
shutting  off  of  the  gas  from  the  outside  of  the  building. 

When  interior  gas  lamps  are  not  ignited  by  electricity,  other  suitable 
appliances,  to  be  approved  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings,  shall  be  provided. 

All  suspended  or  bracket  burners  surrounded  by  glass,  in  the  auditorium, 
or  in  any  part  of  ^  the  building  devoted  to  the  public,  shall  be  provided 
with  proper  wire  netting  underneath  woodwork,  ceiling,  or  in  any  part 
of  the  building,  unless  protected  by  fireproof  materials. 

All  burners  in  passages  and  corridors  in  said  buildings,  and  wherever 
deemed  necessary  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings,  shall  be  protected  with 
proper  wire  network. 

The  footlight  burners,  in  addition  to  the  wire  network,  shall  be  protected 
with  a  strong  wire  guard  and  chain,  placed  not  less  than  two  feet  distance 
from  said  footlight  burner,  and  the  trough  containing  said  footlight 
burners  shall  be  formed  of  and  surrounded  by  fireproof  materials. 

All  border  light  burners  shall  be  constructed  according  to  the  best- 
known  methods,  and  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Bureau  of  Buildings, 
and  shall  be  suspended  for  ten  feet  by  wire  rope. 

All  ducts  or  shafts  used  for  conducting  heated  air  from  the  main  chan- 
delier, or  from  any  other  burner  or  burners,  shall  be  constructed  of  metal 
and  made  double,  with  an  air  space  between. 

All  stage  burners  shall  have  strong  metal  wire  guards  or  screens  not 
less  than  ten  inches  in  diameter,  so  constructed  that  any  material  in 
contact  therewith  shall  be  out  of  reach  of  the  flames  of  said  burners, 
and  must  be  soldered  to  the  fixture  in  all  cases. 

The  stand  pipes,  gas  pipes,  electric  wires,  hose,  footlight  burners,  and 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies    57 

all  apparatus  for  the  extinguishing  of  fire  or  guarding  against  the  same, 
as  in  this  section  specified,  shall  be  in  charge  and  under  control  of  the 
Fire  Department ;  and  the  Commissioner  of  the  said  department  is  hereby 
directed  to  see  that  the  arrangements  in  respect  thereto  are  carried  out 
and  enforced. 


SPECIFICATIONS    OF    THE    UNITED    GAS    IMPROVEMENT    COM- 
PANY, PHILADELPHIA,  FOR  HOUSE  PIPING  FOR    GAS. 

The  gas-pipe  system  must  stand  a  pressure  of  3  pounds  per  square 
inch,  or  6  inches  of  a  mercury  column,  without  showing  any  drop  in  the 
mercury  column  of  the  gauge,  for  a  period  of  10  minutes.  After  the  fix- 
tures are  in  place,  the  piping  and  fixtures  must  stand  the  same  test. 
Leaky  fittings  or  pipes  must  be  removed ;  cement-patched  material  will 
be  rejected. 

The  sizes  of  pipe  shall  not  be  less  than  those  called  for  hi  the  table. 
This  table  shows  for  any  given  number  of  outlets  the  greatest  length 
allowed  for  each  size  of  pipe. 

The  piping  must  be  free  from  obstructions.  Every  piece  of  pipe  should 
be  stood  on  end  and  thoroughly  hammered  and  blown  through  before 
being  connected.  Use  white  lead,  or  other  jointing  material  sparingly, 
to  avoid  clogging  the  pipe.  Always  put  jointing  material  on  the  male 
thread  on  end  of  pipe,  and  not  in  the  fitting.  The  use  of  gas-fitters' 
cement  is  prohibited.  All  piping  should  be  blown  through  after  being 
connected,  to  make  sure  it  is  clear. 

The  piping  must  be  free  from  traps.  All  pipes  shall  grade  back  toward 
the  riser,  and  thence  to  the  meter;  use  a  spirit  level  in  grading.  Any 
pipe  laid  in  a  cold  or  damp  place  should  be  properly  dripped  and  pro- 
tected. 

The  pipes  must  be  rigidly  supported  by  hooks  and  straps.  Outlets 
for  brackets  or  drops  must  be  secured  by  straps  or  flanges,  which  are 
nailed  or  screwed  to  the  woodwork.  Where  the  walls  are  of  masonry 
they  should  be  plugged  and  the  straps  fastened  to  the  plugs. 

The  riser  must  extend  to  a  point  within  24  inches  of  the  proposed 
location  of  the  meter,  and  if  a  horizontal  line  is  needed,  a  tee,  with  a  plug 
looking  down,  must  be  put  on  the  bottom  of  the  vertical  pipe.  In  piping 
new  houses,  the  gas-fitter  should  decide  where  the  gas  meter  ought  to 
be  located,  and  extend  the  riser  to  terminate  within  24  inches  of  this 
point.  In  determining  the  proper  location  of  the  meter,  he  should  be 
guided  by  the  following : 

Meters  will  not  be  located  under  stoops,  sidewalks,  or  shop  windows; 
near  furnaces  or  ovens ;  locked  in  compartments,  nor  placed  in  any  other 
situation  where  they  will  be  inaccessible,  or  liable  to  injury. 


58  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

If  the  building  is  on  a  street  corner,  the  company  should  be  asked 
from  which  street  the  service  will  be  run,  and  where  the  meter  should  be 
located.  If  at  any  time  the  fitter  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  future  location 
of  a  meter,  on  application  to  the  proper  office,  some  one  will  be  sent  to 
instruct  him. 

Where  more  than  one  meter  is  desired  in  a  given  building,  to  accomo- 
date  different  tenants,  the  company  will  set  as  many  meters  as  there  are 
separate  consumers,  connecting  them  to  the  one  service  pipe,  provided 
that  the  risers,  or  pipes  leading  to  the  different  tenants,  are  extended  to 
within  a  reasonable  distance  (say  6  feet)  of  the  actual  or  proposed  loca- 
tion of  service.  All  the  meters  must  stand  side  by  side  in  the  cellar  or 
basement,  within  view  of  the  end  of  the  service.  The  company  will  not 
set  meters  on  the  different  floors  of  a  building.  Risers  must  not  be 
scattered,  but  must  drop  together  to  the  cellar  or  basement,  preferably 
in  the  front  part  of  the  building.  They  should  not  extend  more  than 
3  inches  apart.  They  must  never  end  in  such  a  place  that  beams,  girders, 
heater  pipes,  etc.,  to  be  put  up  subsequently,  would  prevent  making 
connections  to  the  meter. 

Always  use  fittings  in  making  turns;  do  not  bend  the  pipe.  Do  not 
use  unions  in  concealed  work ;  use  long  screws,  or  right-and-left  couplings. 
Long  runs  of  approximately  horizontal  pipe  must  be  firmly  supported  at 
short  intervals,  to  prevent  sagging.  All  branch  outlet  pipes  must  be 
taken  from  the  sides  or  tops  of  running  lines,  never  from  below.  Bracket 
lines  must  be  run  up  from  below;  never  drop  them  from  overhead,  except 
in  lowest  floor  or  cellar  of  buildings. 

Where  pipes  pass  through  masonry  walls  they  must  be  encased,  the  gas 
pipe  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  casing  pipe,  with  a  clearance  of  half 
an  inch  at  the  top. 

Pipes  must  be  run  and  covered  so  as  to  be  readily  accessible.  Do  not 
run  them  at  the  bottom  of  floor  beams,  which  are  to  be  lathed  and  plas- 
tered. They  must  be  securely  attached  to  the  top  of  the  beams,  which 
should  be  cut  out  as  little  as  possible.  Where  pipes  are  parallel  to  beams, 
they  must  be  supported  by  strips  nailed  between  two  beams.  These  strips 
must  not  be  over  4  feet  apart.  All  cutting  of  beams  should  be  done 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  ends,  or  supports,  of  the  beams.  Pipes  must 
not  be  laid  beneath  tiled  or  parquet  floors,  under  marble  platforms,  or 
under  hearth  stones,  where  it  can  be  avoided.  Floor  boards  or  pipes 
should  be  fastened  down  by  screws,  so  that  they  can  readily  be  removed. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   59 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CORRECT  SIZES  OF  HOUSE  PIPES  FOR 
DIFFERENT  LENGTHS  OF  PIPES,  AND  NUMBERS  OF 
OUTLETS. 


Xo.  of 

Length 

of  Pipes 

in  Feet. 

Outlets. 

fin. 
Pipe. 

Hn. 

Pipe. 

f-ln. 

Pipe. 

1-In. 
Pipe. 

iHn. 
Pipe. 

iHn. 
Pipe. 

2-In. 

Pipe. 

2fln. 
Pipe. 

3  In. 

Pipe. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
13 
15 
20 

20 

30 
27 
12 

50 
50 
50 
50 
33 
24 
13 

70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
50 
35 
21 
16 

100 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
60 
45 
27 

150 
150 
150 
150 
150 
150 
150 
150 
150 
120 
65 

200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 

300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 

400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 
400 

25 
30 

... 

17 
12 

42 
30 

175 
120 

300 
•inn 

400 
4flO 

35 

22 

90 

270 

400 

40 

17 

70 

210 

400 

45 

13 

55 

165 

400 

50 

45 

135 

330 

65 

27 

80 

200 

75 

20 

60 

150 

100 

• 

33 

80 

125 

22 

50 

150 

15 

Qtj 

175 

28 

200 

21 

225 

17 

250 

14 

L 

This  table  is  based  on  the  well-known  formula  for  the  flow  of  gas 
through  pipes.  The  friction,  and  therefore  the  pressure  necessary  to 
overcome  the  friction,  increases  with  the  quantity  of  gas  that  goes 
through  per  unit  time,  and  as  the  aim  of  the  table  is  to  have  the  loss  in 
pressure  not  exceed  one-tenth  of  an  inch  water-pressure  in  thirty  feet, 
the  size  of  the  pipe  increases  in  going  from  an  extremity  toward  the 
meter,  as  each  section  has  an  increasing  number  of  outlets  to  supply. 
The  quantity  of  gas  the  piping  may  be  called  on  to  pass  through  is 
stated  in  terms  of  0.375-inch  outlets,  instead  of  cubic  feet,  outlets  being 
used  as  a  unit  instead  of  burners,  because  at  the  time  of  first  inspection 
the  number  of  burners  may  not  be  definitely  determined.  In  designing 
the  table,  each  0.375-inch  outlet  was  assumed  as  requiring  a  supply  of 
ten  cubic  feet  per  hour. 


60 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


How  to  Use  the  Table. 

In  using  the  table  observe  the  following  rules: 

1.  No  house  riser  shall  be  less  than  0.75  inch.     The  house  riser  is 
considered  to  extend  from  the  cellar  to  the  ceiling  of  the  first  floor.     Above 
the  ceiling  the  pipe  must  be  extended  of  the  same  size  as  the  riser,  until 
the  first  branch  line  is  taken  off. 

2.  No  house  pipe  shall  be  less  than  0.375  inch.     An  extension  to 
existing  piping  may  be  made  of  0 . 25-inch  pipe  to  supply  not  more  than 
one  outlet,  provided  said  pipe  is  not  over  six  feet  long. 

3.  No  gas  range  shall  be  connected  with  a  smaller  pipe  than  1  inch. 

4.  In  figuring  out  the  size  of  pipe,  always  start  at  the  extremities  of 
the  system  and  work  toward  the  meter. 

5.  In  using  the  table,  the  lengths  of  pipe  to  be  used  in  each  case  are 
the  lengths  measured  from  one  branch  or  point  of  juncture  to  another, 
disregarding  elbows  or  turns.     Such  lengths  will  be  hereafter  spoken  of 
as  "  sections."     No  change  in  size  of  pipe  may  be  made  except  at  branches 
or  outlets,  each  "  section,"  therefore,  being  made  of  but  one  size  of  pipe. 

6.  If  any  outlet  is  larger  than  0 . 375  inch,  it  must  be  counted  as  more 
than  one,  in  accordance  with  the  schedule  below: 


In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Size  of  outlet   .    . 

0.5 

0.75 

1.0 

1.25 

1.5 

2.0 

2* 

3 

Value  in  table  .    . 

2 

4 

7 

11 

16 

28 

44 

64 

7.  If  the  exact  number  of  outlets  given  cannot  be  found  in  the  table, 
take  the  next  larger  number.     For  example,  if  17  outlets  are  required, 
work  with  the  next  larger  number  in  the  table,  which  is  20. 

8.  If,  for  the  number  of  outlets  given,  the  exact  length  of  the  "  sec- 
tion "  which  feeds  these  outlets,  cannot  be  found  in  the  table,  the  next 
larger  length  corresponding  to  the  outlets  given  must  be  taken  to  deter- 
mine the  size  of  the  pipe  required.     Thus,  if  there  are  8  outlets  to  be  fed 
through  55  feet  of  pipe,  the  length  next  larger  than  55  in  the  8-outlet  line 
in  the  table  is  100,  and  as  this  is  in  the  1 . 25-inch  column,  that  size  pipe 
would  be  required  for  7  outlets. 

9.  For  any  given  number  of  outlets,  do  not  use  a  smaller  size  pipe 
than  the  smallest  size  that  contains  a  figure  in  the  table  for  that  number 
of  outlets.     Thus,  to  feed  15  outlets,  no  smaller  size  pipe  than  1-inch  may 
be  used,  no  matter  how  short  the  "  section  "  may  be. 

10.  In  any  piping  plan,  in  any  continuous  run  from  an  extremity  to 
the  meter,  there  may  not  be  used  a  longer  length  of  any  size  pipe  than 
found  in  the  table  for  that  size,  as  50  feet  for  0. 75-inch,  70  feet  for  1-inch, 
etc.  If  any  one  "  section  "  would  exceed  the  limit  length,  it  must  be 
made  of  larger  pipe.  Thus  6  outlets  could  not  be  fed  through  75  feet  of 
1-inch  pipe,  but  1 . 25-inch  would  have  to  be  used. 


Rules,   Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies    61 

When  two  or  more  successive  "sections"  work  out  to  the  same  size  of 
pipe,  and  their  total  length  or  sum  exceeds  the  longest  length  in  the  table 
for  that  size  of  pipe,  make  the  "section"  nearest  the  meter  of  the  next 
larger  size.  For  example,  if  we  have  5  outlets  to  be  supplied  through 
45  feet  of  pipe,  we  should  find  by  the  table  that  10  outlets  through  30  feet 
would  require  1-inch  pipe,  and  that  5  outlets  through  45  feet  would  also 
require  1-inch  pipe,  but  as  the  sum  of  the  two  "  sections,"  30  plus  45 
equals  75  feet,  is  longer  than  the  amount  of  1  inch,  that  may  be  used  in 
any  continuous  run,  the  30-foot  section,  being  the  one  nearer  the  meter, 
must  be  made  of  1.25-inch  pipe. 

The  application  of  the  limit  in  length  of  any  one  size  in  a  continuous 
run  may  also  be  shown  as  follows:  Eight  outlets  will  allow  of  13  feet  of 
0 . 75-inch  pipe  in  the  section  between  the  eighth  and  ninth  outlet  (count- 
ing from  the  extremity  of  the  system  toward  the  meter),  provided  that 
this  13  feet  added  to  the  total  length  of  f-inch  pipe,  that  may  have  been 
used  between  the  extremity  of  the  run,  and  the  eighth  outlet,  does  not 
exceed  50  feet,  which,  according  to  the  table,  is  the  greatest  length  of 
0 . 75-inch  allowable  in  any  one  branch  of  the  system.  Therefore,  up  to 
the  eighth  outlet,  37  feet  of  0.75-inch  pipe  could  have  been  used,  and 
yet  allow  13  feet  of  0.75-inch  to  be  used  in  the  section  between  the 
eighth  and  ninth  outlet.  If  more  than  37  feet  had  been  used,  then  the 
entire  13  feet  between  the  eighth  and  ninth  outlets  would  have  to  be  of 
1-inch  pipe. 

11.  Never  supply  gas  from  a  smaller  size  pipe  to  a  larger  one.  If  we 
have  25  outlets  to  be  supplied  through  200  feet  of  pipe,  and  these  25  and 
5  more,  making  30  in  all,  through  100  feet  of  pipe,  we  should  find  by  the 
table  that  25  outlets  through  200  feet  would  require  2^-inch  pipe,  and 
30  outlets  through  100  feet  would  require  2-inch  pipe,  but  as  under  this 
condition  a  2-inch  pipe  would  be  supplying  a  2 . 5-inch,  the  100-foot  section 
must  be  made  2.5-inch. 

CIRCULAR  OF  THE  BOSTON  GAS  LIGHT  COMPANY  TO  GAS- 
FITTERS  ON  RULES  FOR  GAS  PIPING  (SEPTEMBER,  1890). 

In  order  to  secure  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  gas,  it  is  deemed 
proper  to  require  adherence  to  a  Table  and  Regulations.  This 
table  is  identical  with  the  one  formulated  by  the  New  York  City 
Building  Department. 

Note.  It  will  be  noticed  that  no  greater  length  of  pipe  of  each  size  is 
allowed  than  that  specified  in  the  list;  and  that  no  more  burners  can  be 
taken  from  any  size  than  the  number  stated,  even  if  the  length  of  pipe  is 
diminished. 

Xo  job  will  be  approved  in  which  copper  pipe  is  used. 

In  all  cases  the  position  of  the  meter  shall  be  determined  by  the  gas 
company's  inspector  of  fittings. 


62  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

The  connection  with  the  meter  must  never  be  less  in  size  than  the 
largest  pipe  used  in  the  house  distribution. 

Every  service  pipe  must  have  a  T  placed  so  as  to  be  easily  opened,  in 
order  that  the  service  pipe  may  be  cleared  when  any  stoppage  occurs, 
and  a  brass  cock  must  be  furnished  and  placed  near  the  wall  where  the 
service  enters. 

All  service  pipes,  and  other  connections  between  street  mains  and 
meters,  passing  through  arches  under  sidewalks,  coal-holes,  or  areas,  and 
all  other  pipes  in  exposed  places,  must  be  protected  from  accident  and 
the  weather,  at  the  expense  of  the  party  for  whose  benefit  the  gas  is 
supplied. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  crossing  the  gas  pipes  with  electric  wires, 
as  buildings  so  piped  will  not  be  passed  by  inspector. 

Brass  cocks  with  a  gas-way  not  less  than  the  capacity  of  the  riser,  must 
be  placed  on  all  risers  of  2  inches  and  above. 

No  job  will  be  approved  where  "  gas-fitters'  cement  "  has  been  used  as 
a  material  to  stop  sandholes  or  other  leaks,  or  for  any  other  purpose. 

REVISED  REGULATIONS  PERTAINING  TO  GAS-FITTING  AND 
GAS-FITTING  MATERIALS,  ADOPTED  JULY  29,  1898,  BY  THE 
BOARD  OF  HEALTH  AND  THE  BUILDING  COMMISSIONER 
OF  BOSTON,  TO  TAKE  EFFECT  OCTOBER  1,  1898. 

1.  In  all  cases  of  repair  of  leaks,  a  notice  giving  the  location  and 
extent  of  all  work  performed  shall  be  filed  with  the  building  commissioner 
immediately  upon  completion  of  the  same. 

2.  No  pipe  or  fitting  shall  be  covered  or  concealed  from  view  until 
approved  by  one  of  the  gas  inspectors  of  the  building  department,  or  for 
twenty-four  hours  after  notice  has  been  given  to  the  building  commis- 
sioner. 

3.  No  pipe  shall  be  so  laid  as  to  support  any  weight  (except  fixtures), 
or  to  be  subjected  to  any  strain. 

4.  All  outlets  for  fixtures  shall  be  securely  fastened  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  building  commissioner;  all  outlets  not  covered  by  fixtures  shall  be 
left  capped,  and  the  number  of  burners  for  each  outlet  shall  be  marked 
on  the  builders'  plans. 

5.  Any  pipe  laid  in  a  cold  or  damp  place  shall  be  properly  dripped 
and  protected. 

6.  All  swing  brackets  shall  have  a  globe  or  guard  to  prevent  the  burner 
from  coming  in  contact  with  the  wall.     All  bracket  outlets  shall  be  at 
least  2  inches  away  from  window  or  door  casings. 

7.  Gas  or  combination  fixtures  in  all  public  buildings,  theaters,  and 
public  halls  shall  be  made  safe  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  building  com- 
missioner. 

8.  All  stop-pins  to  keys  or  cocks  or  fixtures  shall  be  screwed  into  place. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   63 

9.   The   use  of  gas-fitters*  cement  is  prohibited,  except  in  putting 
fixtures  together. 

10.  Gas  shall  not  be  let  on  in  any  building  until  the  work  performed 
has  been  approved  by  the  building  commissioner.     Inside  services  shall 
be  tested  by  the  fitter  who  receives  the  permit  to  connect  the  service  or 
meter. 

11.  There  shall  be  a  brass  straightway  valve  on  the  service  pipe  close 
to  the  foundation  wall,  one  at  the  inlet  and  one  at  the  outlet  side  of  each 
meter.     Iron  valves  shall  not  be  used. 

12.  There  shall  be  a  final  test,  by  a  gas-fitter,  of  fixtures  and  pipes,  by 
two  inches  of  mercury,  which  must  stand  five  minutes ;  this  test  to  be  made 
in  the  presence  of  one  of  the  gas  inspectors  of  the  building  department ; 
the  gauge  to  be  made  of  glass  tubing  of  uniform  interior  diameter,  and  so 
constructed  that  both  surfaces  of  the  mercury  will  be  exposed. 

13.  All  gas  pipe  shall  be  of  wrought  iron,  all  fittings  of  malleable  iron, 
and  all  meter  connections  of  lead  pipe  of  the  same  size  as  the  fit  or  riser. 
Galvanized  fittings  are  prohibited. 

14.  Brass  solder  nipples  shall  be  used  on  all  meter  connections. 

15.  Xo  riser  shall  be  left  more  than  five  feet  away  from  the  front 
foundation  wall. 

16.  All  buildings  shall  be  piped  according  to  a  scale  [which  is  omitted 
here,  because  it  is  practically  the  same  as  the  one  of  the  N.  Y.  City  Build- 
ing Department]. 

17.  All  outlets  and  risers  shall  be  left  capped  or  covered  with  fixtures. 

18.  All  service  pipes  in  cold  or  damp  places  shall  be  painted  with  two 
coats  of  red  lead  and  boiled  oil. 

19.  Gas  outlets  for  burners  shall  not  be  placed  under  tanks,  back  of 
doors,  or  within  four  feet  of  any  meter. 

20.  All  gas  burners  less  than  three  feet  from  ceiling  or  woodwork 
shall  be  protected  by  a  shield. 

21.  All  brass  tubing  used  for  arms  or  stems  of  fixtures  shall  be  at 
least  Xo.  18  standard  gauge  and  full  size  outside  so  as  to  cut  a  full  thread. 
All  threads  on  brass  pipe  shall  screw  in  at  least  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch. 
All  rope  or  square  tubing  shall  be  brazed  or  soldered  into  fittings  and 
distributers,  or  have  a  nipple  brazed  into  the  tubing. 

22.  All  cast  fittings,  such  as  cocks,  swing  joints,  double  centers  and 
nozzles  shall  be  extra  heavy.     The  plugs  of  all  cocks  must  be  ground  to 
a  smooth  and  true  surface  for  their  entire  length,  be  free  from  sandholes, 
have  not  less  than  0.75-inch  bearing  (except  in  cases  of  special  design), 
have  two  flat  sides  on  the  end  for  a  washer  and  have  two  nuts  instead  of 
a  tail-screw. 

23.  Outlets  for  gas  ranges  shall  have  a  diameter  not  less  than  that 
required  for  six  burners,  and  all  gas  ranges  and  heaters  shall  have  a 
straightway  valve  on  the  service  pipe. 


64  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

24.  Pipes  in  buildings  shall  be  laid  above  timbers  instead  of  beneath 
them,  where  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

25.  No  secondhand  gas  pipe  shall  be  put  into  use  in  any  building 
without  the  written  permit  of  the  building  commissioner. 

26.  Drops  or  outlets  less  than  0.75  of  an  inch  in  diameter  shall  not  be 
left  more  than  0.75  of  an  inch  below  plastering,  centerpiece  or  woodwork, 
and  other  outlets  shall  not  project  more  than  0.75  of  an  inch  beyond 
plastering  or  woodwork. 

27.  Fastening  boards  shall  not  be  cut  away  to  accommodate  electric 
wires.     All  outlets  shall  be  fastened  according  to  methods  illustrated. 

28.  All  iron  pipes  used  for  piping  buildings,  all  arms,  and  all  items  of 
fixtures,  shall  be  of  the  kind  classed  as  standard  pipe. 

29.  No  gas  pipe  shall  be  laid  in  cement,  unless  the  pipe  and  channel, 
in  which  it  is  placed,  are  covered  with  tar,  nor  within  6  inches  of  an 
electric  wire. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  THE  PRAC- 
TICE OF  GAS-FITTING  IN  THE  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Sec.  9.  Upon  the  completion  of  any  system  of  gas  piping  in  a  building, 
and  before  the  floors  are  laid  or  the  pipes  and  fittings  concealed,  there 
shall  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  inspector  of  plumbing,  by  the  plumber 
doing  the  work,  a  detailed  plan  of  the  same,  showing  the  location  and 
size  of  each  pipe,  with  a  statement  that  the  system  is  ready  for  inspection. 

Sec.  10.  Upon  the  filing  of  the  plan  described  in  section  9,  the  inspector 
of  plumbing  shall  promptly  cause  the  system  to  be  inspected,  and  tested 
with  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  six  inches  upon  a  mercury  gauge. 

If  the  test  and  inspection  be  satisfactory  a  certificate  of  approval  shall 
be  issued  by  the  inspector  of  plumbing. 

No  meter  shall  be  attached  to  any  pipe,  or  system  of  pipes,  previous 
to  the  issuance  of  such  certificate. 

Sec.  11.  The  sizes  of  the  pipes  used  shall  not  be  less,  nor  the  length 
greater,  to  the  number  of  burners  stated,  than  those  specified  in  the 
table  (the  table  is  omitted  because  it  is,  for  sizes  above  1  \  inches,  iden- 
tical with  the  one  of  the  N.  Y.  Consolidated  Co.). 

Smaller  pipe  than  0.5-inch  shall  not  be  used  for  ceiling  outlets,  except 
for  lighting  halls,  pantries,  washrooms,  bathrooms  and  kitchens. 

Sec.  12.  The  pipe  used  shall  be  the  best  quality  of  wrought-iron  pipe, 
with  galvanized-iron  fittings,  and  joints  shall  be  made  with  white  lead. 

All  pipes  shall  be  suitably  supported  and  stayed  with  pipe  hooks, 
straps  and  screws. 

All  pipes  shall  be  properly  graded. 

All  split  pipes  must  be  removed. 

Sec.  13.   All  main  risers  shall  be  run  in  an  inside  partition. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   65 

Sec.  14.  Each  gas  meter  shall  be  located  in  accordance  with  directions 
given  by  the  inspector  of  plumbing. 

All  meters  located  in  cellars  must  be  set  at  least  four  feet  above  the 
cellar  floor. 

Sec.  15.  The  service  pipe  shall  be  run,  and  both  connections  with  the 
meter  shall  be  made,  by  the  gas  company. 

Sec.  16.  No  extension  or  alteration  of  any  existing  system  of  gas 
piping  in  a  building  shall  be  made  without  the  inspection  and  approval  of 
the  inspector  of  plumbing. 

Sec.  17.  Upon  the  completion  of  the  building  in  which  a  system  of 
gas  piping  is  run,  and  before  the  hanging  of  the  gas  fixtures,  an  applica- 
tion for  a  final  test  and  approval  of  the  entire  system  shall  be  made,  to  be 
followed  by  the  final  inspection  and  approval. 

EXTRACT  FROM   RULES  AND   REGULATIONS  OF  THE  HUDSON 
COUNTY  GAS  LIGHT  COMPANY,   OF  HOBOKEN,  N.J. 

Sec.  1.  On  the  application  of  the  owners  of  property,  situated  on  the 
avenues  and  streets,  through  which  the  Hudson  County  Gas  Light  Com- 
pany have  their  gas  mains,  a  service  pipe  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  all 
the  gas  that  may  be  required  will  be  placed,  free  of  cost,  from  the  said 
gas  main  in  the  avenue  or  street,  to  a  distance  not  exceeding  25  feet  from 
the  curb  line  thereof;  should  more  than  the  said  25  feet  from  the  curb 
line  be  necessary,  then  the  owner  will  be  charged,  for  each  additional 
foot,  the  actual  cost  of  pipe  and  labor. 

Sec.  9.  Consumers  are  requested  to  give  notice  at  the  office  of  the 
gas  company  of  any  escape  of  gas  in  the  service  pipe,  or  of  any  insufficient 
supply  of  gas,  or  of  any  jumping  of  the  light,  or  any  defect  in  the  service 
as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  that  it  may  be  remedied  at  once. 

Sec.  11.  The  inspector  of  the  gas  company  shall  at  all  times  be  in 
readiness  to  examine  the  pipes  in  the  building  of  all  applicants  for  gas 
free  of  charge,  on  receiving  one  day's  notice,  and  no  gas  meter  will  be 
placed  in  any  building,  that  is  not  found  to  be  perfectly  gas-tight;  also 
no  rising  pipe  from  the  gas  meter  to  the  running  line  of  the  building  will 
be  accepted  of  a  less  size  than  0.75-inch  diameter. 

Sec.  12.  The  tubing  and  fitting  for  the  conveyance  of  gas  within  the 
walls,  after  it  has  passed  the  meter,  may  be  put  up  by  any  competent 
mechanic  employed  by  the  proprietor  of  the  premises,  subject  however 
to  the  approval  of  the  gas  company's  inspector.  The  proportionate 
size  of  the  tubing  must  conform  to  the  Table,  and  no  service  will  be  laid 
from  the  main  to  the  meter  of  less  diameter  than  one  inch. 

Note.  The  Table  referred  to  is  omitted,  being  identical  with  the  one 
of  the  old  Manhattan  Gas  Company  of  N.  Y.  (see  page  49) . 


66  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

EXTRACT  FROM  MILWAUKEE  BUILDING  DEPARTMENT   RULES. 

Gas  Piping. 

1.  The  tubing  and  fitting  for  the  conveyance  of  gas  within  the  walls 
of  a  building  after  it  has  passed  the  meter  may  be  put  in  by  any  competent 
gas-fitter,  but  consumers  and  property  owners  should  require  for  their 
own  protection  that  such  work  be  done  under  these  rules,  and  that  the 
work  is  only  to  be  paid  for  after  the  gas  company  has  passed  upon  it  and 
given  its  certificate. 

2.  In  alterations  in  the  piping  of  buildings,  consumers  or  property 
owners  should  use  the  same  care  as  wrhen  piping  new  buildings. 

3.  The  "certificate  to  be  given  by  the  gas  company,  as  per  form  pro- 
vided, will  only  be  given  after  the  property  owner  has  made  application 
on  the  form  provided. 

4.  All  piping  should  be  inspected  on  completion  and  before  lathing 
the  building.     It  should  be  again  inspected  after  completion  of  the  build- 
ing, and  before  the  fixtures  are  hung.     The  two  inspections  when  passed 
upon  are  sufficient  to  warrant  the  gas  company  in  issuing  a  certificate. 

(A.)    Illuminating  System. 

5.  The  following  table  shows  the  proportionate  size  and  longest  length 
of  tubing  to  be  used,  with  the  greatest  number  of  burners  allowed :  0.375- 
inch  pipe,  15  feet,  3  burners;  0.5-inch  pipe,  25  feet,  6  burners ; 0 . 75-inch 
pipe,  40  feet,  20  burners;  1-inch  pipe,  60  feet,  25  burners;  1 .25-inch  pipe, 
100  feet,  50  burners;  1.5-inch  pipe,  150  feet,  75  burners;  2-inch  pipe,  200 
feet,  150  burners. 

When  one-fourth  the  length  of  pipe  is  used,  the  number  of  burners  may 
be  doubled ;  0.25-inch  pipe  not  to  be  concealed  and  not  more  than  6  feet 
in  length,  nor  more  than  one  burner  to  be  allowed  in  any  case. 

6.  The  risers  in  any  building  must  in  no  case  be  of  less  than  0.75-inch 
pipe,  and  must  in  all  cases  be  run  on  inside  walls,  and  in  no  case  should 
they  be  within  three  feet  of  an  outside  wall.     Extensions  from  the  risers 
to  the  meters  must  be  so   run  that  the   meters  shall  be  conveniently 
located  for  reading  the  index,  and  such  extensions  and  places  for  meters 
so  located  as  to  insure  protection  from  frost  or  excessive  heat. 

All  openings  from  the  riser  must  be  securely  capped  when  the  wrork  is 
finished  and  tested. 

7.  All  drops  and  openings  for  wall  brackets  must  be  made  with  a  bend, 
the  concealed  end  of  which  should  be  at  least  6  inches  long,  and  be  well 
fastened  with  gas  hooks  or  straps.     Ells  and  nipples  or  fastenings  with 
hails  will  in  no  case  be  allowed. 

When  outlets  are  not  in  close  proximity  to  studding  or  joists,  a  notched 
wooden  cross-piece  must  be  securely  fastened  to  secure  the  same.  Drops 
in  large  rooms  must  never  be  less  than  0.5  inch. 

8a.   All  pipe  and  fittings  must  be  put  together  with  litharge  cement. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   67 

8.  Split  pipes  or  fittings  will  not  be  accepted,  even  though  skillfully 
cemented. 

9.  All  pipes  must  be  well  fastened  and  entirely  free  from  traps. 

10.  In  no  case  will  drips  be  allowed,  except  where  absolutely  necessary. 

11.  The  company  reserves  the  right  to  determine  the  location  of  the 
meter. 

12.  All  tests  will  be  made  under  a  pressure  of  air,  ten  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  or  twenty  inches  of  mercury. 

13.  Risers  for  bracket  lights  should  never  be  put  in  place  until  after 
the  studding  for  partition  is  firmly  fastened. 

(#.)    Fuel  System. 

14.  All  piping  for  a  separate  fuel  system  must  be  taken  from  a  branch 
from  the  service  pipe,  a  separate  meter  provided,  and  must  be  run  and 
used  for  supplying  gas  for  fuel  only. 

15.  Xo  illuminating  flames  will  be  allowed,  and  no  branches  or  outlets 
provided  for  other  openings  than  those  connected  with  fuel  appliances. 

16.  Illuminating  burners  will  positively  not  be  allowed  on  the  fuel 
systems  under  any  circumstances. 

17.  A  fuel  meter  will  not  be  furnished  under  any  circumstances,  until 
the  gas  appliance  is  in  place  and  connected. 

18.  Fuel  meters  will  not  be  connected  to  a  pipe  leading  from  the  outlet 
to  another  meter. 

19.  Fuel  rate  will  not  be  allowed  for  any  appliance  attached  to  pipes 
supplying  gas  for  illuminating  purposes. 

20.  Lighting  burners  will  not  be  allowed  on  any  pipe  connected  with 
fuel  meter. 

21.  Should  illuminating  burners  be  found  on  any  pipe  supplying  gas 
at  the  fuel  rate,  the  gas  light  company  reserves  the  right  to  remove  the 
fuel  meter  upon  forty-eight  (48)  hours  notice,  and  to  charge  the  full 
illuminating  rate  for  all  gas  furnished  such  consumer  from  such  time  as 
such  fuel  meter  was  set. 

22.  To  govern  the  size  of  tubing  to  be  used  in  piping  for  fuel  systems, 
the  following  rules  should  be  followed: 

(a)  Consider  that  each  piece  of  apparatus  will  be  used  to  its  maximum, 
and  all  pieces  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

(6)  Use  as  a  basis  for  figuring  pipe,  that  a  four-hole  range  uses  50  feet 
per  hour,  six-hole  range  uses  80  feet  per  hour.  Each  gas  fire  or  log  uses 
50  feet  per  hour,  each  water  heater  uses  25  cubic  feet  per  hour.  (If  in 
connection  with  range,  add  25  feet  to  consumption  of  range.)  Smaller 
appliances,  25  feet  per  hour. 

(c)  Figure  each  length  of  pipe  between  openings  separately,  com- 
mencing at  the  meter. 

(d)  Do  not  run  over  20  feet  of  0 . 5  inch ;  50  feet  of  0 . 75  inch ;  80  feet  of 
1  inch;  100  feet  of  1.25  inch;  150  feet  of  1 .5  inch:  200  feet  of  2  inch. 


68 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


23.  Openings  for  fuel  appliances  should  as  a  rule  be  12  inches  from  the 
floor  and  project  1 . 5  inches  clear  from  the  finished  wall. 

24.  All  other  rules  for  piping  and  inspecting  not  inconsistent  with  these 
will  be  the  same  as  for  the  illuminating  system. 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  OF  THE  DENVER  CONSOLIDATED 
GAS  COMPANY. 

Illuminating  Pipes. 

Section  1.  Pipes  are  to  be  run  in  the  building  to  supply  burners  where 
indicated  by  red  checks  or  stars  on  the  plans ;  should  there  be  an  omission 
of  a  red  check  in  any  room,  it  must  be  supplied,  notwithstanding  such 
omission. 

The  following  table  of  runs,  sizes,  and  openings  will  govern  the  running 
of  pipes: 


Size  of  Pipe. 

Length  of  Run 
Allowed. 

Total  Openings 
Allowed. 

Remarks. 

|  inch 

20  feet 

1 

This    table    permits    a 

£  inch 

25  feet 

1 

much    smaller    num- 

| inch 

50  feet 

4 

ber      of    outlets      for 

1    inch 

70  feet 

7 

each  size    pipe  than 

1£  inch 

125  feet 

11 

all  other  tables  given. 

1£  inch 

200  feet 

16 

-W.  P.  G. 

2    inch 

300  feet 

30 

Sec.  2.  Risers  to  be  placed  as  near  the  center  of  the  building  as  possible, 
and  at  least  four  feet  from  the  heating  apparatus.  Where  floors  vary  in 
height,  there  will  be  a  separate  riser  for  each  height.  Large  buildings  will 
have  one  or  more  risers  as  designated  by  plans  and  hereinafter  specified. 

Sec.  3.  All  pipes  for  bracket  lights  must  run  up  from  below  and  the 
outlets  securely  fastened ;  the  nipples  must  be  level  and  project  one  and 
one-half  inches  beyond  plastering  and  no  more,  and  at  right  angles  to 
same. 

Sec.  4.  Drops  must  be  plumb  and  securely  fastened  above  and  below, 
to  extend  one  and  one-half  inches  below  the  ceiling  and  no  more.  Where 
plaster  centerpieces  are  used,  drops  to  extend  the  same  distance  below 
centers  and  always  at  right  angles  with  plastering. 

All  drops  and  brackets  to  be  made  by  means  of  elbows  and  tees  and  not 
by  the  use  of  bent  pipe. 

Fuel-Gas    Pipes. 

Sec.  5.  A  separate  line  of  pipe  to  be  run  for  fuel  gas  as  indicated  by 
yellow  lines  on  plans;  the  openings  for  gas  grates  or  gas  stoves  to  be  not 
less  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  and  where  indicated  by  yellow  checks 
or  stars  on  plans. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   69 

The  following  table  of  sizes,  runs,  and  openings  will  govern  the  running 
of  pipes  for  fuel  gas : 


Size  of  Pipe. 

Length  of  Run 
Allowed. 

Total  Openings 
Allowed. 

Remarks. 

1    inch 

40  feet 

1 

See   note   in   the  pre- 

1J inch 

60  feet 

2 

ceding  table. 

1£  inch 

100  feet 

4 

—  W.  P.  G. 

2    inch 

150  feet 

6 

Risers  for  fuel-gas  pipes  to  be  placed  two  feet  from  the  riser  for  illumi- 
nating gas,  so  that  the  two  meters  can  be  set  side  by  side. 

Sec.  6.  All  pipes  to  be  of  the  best  wrought  iron,  and  the  same  are  to 
be  tested  before  use  by  blowing  through  them  to  see  that  there  is  no 
obstruction.  All  split  or  defective  pipe  to  be  replaced  with  new  pipe. 

Sec.  7.  All  pipes  to  be  secured  in  position  by  means  of  galvanized-iron 
straps  —  No.  20  or  heavier,  as  occasion  requires  —  and  wrought-iron 
hold-fasts.  No  nails  are  to  be  used  in  place  of  the  above-mentioned 
straps  and  hold-fasts. 

Sec.  8.  All  cementing  to  be  done  with  the  best  quality  of  "  gas-fitters1 
cement  "  and  applied  with  an  alcohol  lamp. 

All  pipes  must  be  free  from  sags  and  decline  toward  main  rising  pipes. 

All  outlets  to  be  capped. 

All  joints  or  connections  are  to  be  made  with  red  lead. 

Sec.  9.  No  studding,  joist,  or  other  timber  about  the  building  to  be 
cut  for  the  letting  in  of  gas  pipe  without  first  obtaining  the  consent  of 
the  architect,  or  his  representative  in  charge  of  the  work,  and  in  case  of 
no  architect,  then  whoever  may  be  in  charge  of  the  work.  All  horizontal 
pipes  are  to  be  run  as  near  the  bearing  of  the  joists  as  possible  and  not 
through  the  center  of  the  span. 

All  pipes  are  to  be  let  hi  at  the  top  of  the  joists  and  not  hung  from  the 
bottom. 


RULES  OF  THE  CINCINNATI  GAS  LIGHT  AND  COKE  COMPANY 
FOR  GAS-FITTERS,  ARCHITECTS,  CONTRACTORS,  OWNERS, 
OR  AGENTS  OF  BUILDINGS. 

The  tubing  and  fittings  for  the  conveyance  of  gas  within  any  building, 
after  it  has  passed  the  meter,  may  be  put  up  by  any  competent  gas-fitter 
employed  by  the  consumer  or  proprietor  of  the  premises,  subject,  however, 
to  the  inspection  and  approval  of  the  company,  which  requires  an  inspec- 
tion of  all  pipe  before  it  is  covered  over  by  plastering  or  flooring. 

The  notice  for  inspection  must  be  accompanied  by  a  plan  of  the  fittings, 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  eight  feet,  on  which  must  be  marked  the 


70  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

size  and  length  of  tubing,  from  joint  to  joint,  and  the  position  of  the 
burners  —  said  plans  to  be  numbered,  by  the  inspector,  to  correspond 
with  the  register  of  application,  and  filed  in  the  office  for  future 
inspection. 

All  tubing  and  screws  must  be  of  wrought  iron,  brass,  or  copper,  but 
no  more  of  the  latter  than  may  be  required  to  run  from  the  ceiling  or  wall 
to  a  gas  burner.  All  Ts,  Ls,  Xs,  springs,  bends,  etc.,  must  be  of  hard 
brass  (gun  metal)  or  iron.  All  stopcocks  must  be  plugged  and  bushed 
with  brass,  and  the  ways  equal  to  the  bore  of  the  tubing,  and  all  fittings 
must  be  put  together  with  gas-fitters'  cement,  when  the  inspector  shall 
require  it. 

After  all  the  fittings  are  completed,  written  notice  must  be  given  at  the 
office  of  the  company,  whose  inspector  will  examine  the  work,  in  whose 
presence  air  shall  be  forced  into  the  whole  of  the  system  of  pipe  and 
fittings,  until  the  pressure  is  equal  to  thirty  inches  of  mercury ;  and  unless 
the  fittings  shall  be  perfectly  tight,  under  such  pressure,  and  otherwise 
satisfactory  to  the  company,  the  gas  will  in  no  case  be  supplied. 

Drops  and  bracket  outlets  must  be  well  fastened  with  gas  hooks. 
Nails  will  not  be  allowed.  Split  pipes  or  fittings  will  not  be  accepted 
even  though  skillfully  cemented.  All  risers  must  start  from  the  cellar, 
and  so  run  that  required  extensions  to  meters  may  avoid  cellar  openings. 
All  pipes  must  be  well  fastened  and  entirely  free  from  "  traps."  Under 
no  circumstances  will  "  drips "  be  allowed  except  where  absolutely 
unavoidable. 

No  riser  in  any  building  must  be  of  less  than  0.75-inch  pipe,  except 
where  there  are  but  three  outlets,  when  0.5-inch  will  be  allowed.  In 
buildings  with  large  rooms  the  drops  must  be  0.5  inch,  with  a  set  from 
the  main  line  of  pipe  of  not  less  than  4  inches,  dropped  square  and  well 
secured  by  gas  hooks  to  the  joists.  The  same  rule  to  be  observed  on  all 
cross  lines  of  pipe.  No  outlets  intended  for  gas  stoves  must  be  of  less 
than  0.5-inch. 

In  all  cases  where  alterations  are  required  to  be  made,  notice  must  be 
given  at  the  office  of  the  company  on  the  day  previous,  to  enable  the 
company  to  turn  off  the  gas.  As  soon  as  the  work  is  completed,  the  same 
rules  must  be  observed  as  in  rule  relating  to  testing. 

The  table  given  in  the  rules,  but  omitted  here  —  exhibits  the  propor- 
tionate length  and  size  of  tubing  permitted  by  the  company  to  be  used. 

All  outlets  intended  for  gas  stoves  must  not  be  of  less  size  than  0.5 
inch,  the  same  to  be  so  located  as  not  to  exceed  24  inches  above  the 
floor. 

All  outlets  for  gas  logs  must  not  be  of  less  size  than  0.5-inch,  and  only 
one  log  allowed  on  0.5-inch  pipe,  two  on  0.75-inch,  and  three  on  1-inch 
pipe,  location  of  same  to  be  in  center  of  fireplace,  4  inches  from  back 
and  1  inch  above  level  of  floor  in  room. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   71 

Xo  outlets  for  drop  fixtures  or  side-wall  fixtures  will  be  allowed  on 
branches  intended  for  gas  stoves  or  gas  logs  after  leaving  main  line  of 
pipe. 

All  center  drops  in  churches  or  public  halls  must  not  be  of  less  size  than 
0.75-inch,  and  only  one  drop  allowed  on  0. 75-inch  pipe,  two  on  1-inch, 
and  four  on  1.25-inch  pipe. 

Theaters  and  lodge-rooms  which  may  have  several  lines  of  pipe,  same 
to  be  controlled  by  stage-cocks,  must  have  extra  large  size  of  pipe  run 
from  meter  to  stage,  so  as  to  give  ample  supply  of  gas  for  distribution 
to  all  lines  of  pipe  running  from  that  point. 

All  side  fixtures  in  bedrooms,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  owner  of 
building,  to  be  not  over  five  feet  from  floor.  Side  fixtures  for  hallways, 
bathrooms,  and  water-closets  must  not  be  less  than  6.5  feet  from  the 
floor. 

Gas-fitters  and  plumbers  are  positively  prohibited  from  using  water 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  or  finding  leaks  in  pipes. 

In  making  connections  to  meters,  in  no  case  will  the  size  of  uprights  in 
house  be  allowed  to  be  reduced.  Lead  pipe  of  same  size  as  house  pipe 
must  be  used.  Gas  will  not  be  turned  on  to  any  premises  where  this 
rule  is  violated  until  the  proper  change  is  made. 


GAS-FITTER'S  RULES  AND  TABLES   OF  THE  PEOPLE'S  GAS 
LIGHT  AND   COKE   COMPANY,   CHICAGO. 

The  following  tables  show  the  proportionate  size  and  length  of  tubing 
allowed : 

(A)  OFFICE  BUILDINGS,    DWELLING  HOUSES    AND  FLATS.     MANU- 
FACTURED GAS   FOR   LIGHT. 


Size  of  Tubing. 

Greatest  Length 
Allowed. 

Greatest    Number    of 
0.375-in.  Openings 
Allowed. 

|  inch 

20  feet 

2  openings 

i  inch 

30  feet 

3  openings 

f  inch 

60  feet 

10  openings 

1    inch 

70  feet 

15  openings 

H  inch 

100  feet 

30  openings 

li  inch 

150  feet 

60  openings 

2    inch 

200  feet 

100  openings 

2$  inch 

200  feet 

200  openings 

3    inch 

300  feet 

300  openings 

Drops  in  double  parlors,  large  rooms,  and  halls  of  office  buildings  must 
not  be  less  than  0 . 5  inch. 


'2  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

(B)   STORES,   HOSPITALS,   SCHOOLS,   FACTORIES,  ETC.     MANUFACTURED 
GAS  FOR  LIGHT. 


Size  of  Tubing. 

Greatest  Length 
Allowed. 

Greatest  Number  of  0.5-in. 
Openings  Allowed. 

J  inch 

20  feet 

1  opening 

|  inch 

60  feet 

8  openings 

1    inch 

70  feet 

12  openings 

li  inch 

100  feet 

20  openings 

1$  inch 

150  feet 

35  openings 

2    inch 

200  feet 

50  openings 

For  stores  the  running  line  to  be  full  size  to  end  of  last  opening. 
All  drops  to  be  0.5  inch  with  set  not  less  than  4  inches.     Twenty  feet 
of  0.375-inch  pipe  allowed  only  for  bracket  fixtures. 


MANUFACTURED    GAS    FOR    FUEL. 


Size  of  Tubing. 

Greatest  Length 
Allowed. 

Greatest  Number  of  0.75-in.  Openings  Allowed. 

f  inch 

50  feet 

One  f  inch  or  two  £  inch 

1    inch 

70  feet 

Two  or  one  |  inch  and  two  J  inch 

H  inch 

100  feet 

Four  or  two  f  inch  and  four  %  inch 

1$  inch 

150  feet 

Seven  or  four  |  inch  and  six  £  inch 

2    inch 

200  feet 

Fifteen  or  eight  J  inch  and  fourteen  £  inch 

For  mantles,  grates,  and  small  heating  appliances,  for  heating  space 
not  to  exceed  1728  cubic  feet,  30  feet  of  0.5-inch  pipe  is  allowed  for 
one  opening  only,  and  two  such  openings  are  considered  as  one  0 . 75-inch 
opening. 


FOR    GAS    ENGINES. 


Size  of  Engine. 

Size  of  Opening. 

Greatest  Length 
Allowed. 

1H.P. 

1    inch 

60  feet 

2H.P. 

\\  inch 

70  feet 

5H.P. 

l\  inch 

100  feet 

7H.P. 

\\  inch 

100  feet 

12  H.P. 

2    inch 

140  feet 

Supply  for  gas  engine  must  be  separate,  and  an  independent  service 
will  be  required. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   73 


Building   Services. 

In  running  service  pipe  from  front  wall  to  meters,  the  following  rules 
will  apply. 


Size  of  Opening. 

Greatest  Length  Allowed. 

Greatest  Number  of  0.75-in. 
Openings  Allowed. 

1    inch 
li  inch 
H  inch 
2    inch 

70  feet 
100  feet 
150  feet 
200  feet 

1  opening 
3  openings 
5  openings 
8  openings 

All  openings  in  service  must  be  equal  to  the  size  of  riser,  which  in  no 
case  must  be  less  than  0 . 75  inch. 

Rules. 

1.  All  branches  or  cross  lines  of  pipe  from  the  main  line  must  have  a 
set  not  less  than  4  inches  dropped  square,  and  must  be  well  secured  to 
joists  by  gas  hooks  or  straps. 

2.  All  openings  must  be  closed  with  iron  caps,  no  split  pipe  or  broken 
fittings  repaired  with  cement  or  lead  will  be  allowed. 

3.  All  drops  on  branch  lines  and  openings  for  side  brackets  must  be 
square  bends;  no  nipples  allowed. 

4.  The  risers  in  all  buildings  must  be  carried  up  in  an  inside  partition 
out  of  reach  of  frost,  and  must  be  placed  where  the  meter  and  stopcock 
can  be  readily  gotten  at.     Vestibules  not  to  be  considered  as  inside  parti- 
tions. 

5.  To  avoid  trapping,  gas-fitters  must  grade  all  pipes  to  riser  or  drops. 

6.  In  no  case  will  a  meter  be  set  where  it  is  not  easily  accessible,  or 
where  it  is  exposed  to  frost  and  dampness,  or  liable  to  injury  from  any 
cause. 

7.  All  pipes  for  fuel  must  be  run  independently,  and  connected  to 
lighting  risers  at  the  meter  end,  with  right  and  left  unions,  or  running 
threads. 

8.  Supply  for  gas  engines  must  be  separate,  and  an  independent 
service  will  be  required. 

9.  Drops  in  churches,  schools,  public  halls,  stores,  double  parlors, 
large  rooms,  etc.,  must  not  be  less  than  0.5  inch. 

10.  No  riser  in  any  building  must  be  less  than  0 . 75  inch  and  in  stores 
must  not  be  under  deck  of  show  windows,  as  meter  will  not  be  set  there. 

11.  The  riser  in  any  building  must  not  be  less  than  20  inches  from  the 
floor  for  two  to  ten  openings;  2  feet  6  inches  for  ten  to  thirty  openings; 


74  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

4  feet  for  thirty  to  sixty  openings;  5  feet  for  sixty  to  one  hundred  open- 
ings; 6  feet  for  over  one  hundred  openings. 

Where  meters  are  to  be  set  on  wall,  no  riser  must  be  higher  than  9  feet 
from  floor. 

12.  In  all  cases  where  extensions  are  made,  care  must  be  taken  to  break 
pipe  where  the  rule  for  size  can  be  maintained,  and  in  no  case  shall  exten- 
sion be  made  from  small  pipes. 

13.  In  flat  buildings  meters  should  be  set  in  basement  or  in  room 
provided  for  meters;  otherwise  in  premises  where  gas  is  consumed. 

14.  All  risers  and  building  services  must  be  brought  to  front  of  building 
and  within  18  inches  of  wall  or  partition,  and  must  not  be  less  than  15 
inches  apart  where  risers  are  grouped. 

15.  In  all  cases  where  building  service  is  used,  provide  header  with  an 
opening  for  each  riser;  where  risers  are  in  groups,  openings  must  not  be 
less  than  15  inches  apart. 

16.  Underground  work  by  gas-fitters  between  main  and  meter  will  not 
be  allowed  or  accepted. 

17.  To  avoid  complications,  gas-fitters  should  consult  this  company 
before  locating  risers  in  corner  buildings. 

18.  In  flat  buildings  where  appliances  are  installed  for  the  joint  use 
of  tenants,  such  as  laundry  stoves,  driers,  etc.,  run  pipe  from  each  meter 
to  laundry  and  provide  a  header  with  a  lock  cock  for  each  tenant.     Fasten 
securely  to  each  cock  a  metal  tag  with  the  flat  number  plainly  marked 
thereon. 

19.  All  work  must  be  proved  with  mercury  gauge,  not  less  than  a  six- 
inch  column  of  mercury  being  allowed. 

20.  All  pipe  must  be  examined  by  the  inspector  of  this  company  before 
being  concealed,  and  twenty-four  hours'  notice  must  be  given  by  gas- 
fitters  when  any  pipe  is  ready  for  inspection. 

21.  If  the  rules  concerning  the  size  of  pipes  are  not  clearly  understood 
in  each  case,  or  if  unusual  conditions  are  met  with,  which  the  rules  do  not 
cover,  communicate  with  the  company's  inspector. 

22.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  company  to  strictly  enforce  the  above 
rules,  and  no  certificate  of  inspection  will  be  given  when  they  are  not 
complied  with. 

23.  Architects,  builders,  and  owners  of  buildings  are  requested  not  to 
allow  a  bill  for  gas-fitting  unless  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  inspection. 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   75 

HINTS  AND  INSTRUCTIONS  TO  GAS  FITTERS.* 

1.  Gas-fitters,  when  beginning  the  work  of  fitting  up  a  building,  should 
read  the  rules  of  the  gas  company  and  see  how  many  outlets  are  allowed 
on  each  size  of  pipe. 

2.  When  running  extra  pipe  or  making  alterations  in  new  buildings, 
after  the  original  work  is  completed,  the  fitter  should  put  on  the  gauge 
and  test  before  and  also  after  the  alterations  are  made. 

3.  Fitters  must  put  in  drops  with  bends  instead  of  elbows,  according 
to  the  gas  company's  rules. 

4.  Be  careful  in  locating  the  meter.     Risers  should  not  be  run  on  the 
outside  wall,  for  if  they  are  the  gas  will  condense  in  winter  and  cause  the 
light  to  flicker. 

5.  When  running  service  pipe,  be  sure  not  to  trap  the  pipe.     Always 
put  alcohol  cock  where  it  can  be  got  at  conveniently  in  case  of  freezing 
in  winter.     When  the  service  is  completed,  test  it  by  blowing  into  the 
alcohol  cock;  then  close  it  and  allow  the  pressure  to  stand  five  or  ten 
minutes;  then  open  the  key  and  if  there  is  sufficient  back  pressure  the 
piping  is  tight ;  if  not  it  leaks  and  must  be  remedied. 

6.  In  making  alterations  in  old  buildings,  before  making  any  exten- 
sions the  fitter  should  disconnect  the  meter  and  cap  the  riser,  put  on  his 
gauge  and  see  whether  the  work  is  tight ;  also  prove  it  when  the  work 
is  completed. 

7.  Drops  should  be  fastened  properly  by  putting  in  cleats  between 
joists. 

8.  In  parlors  one-half-inch  drops  should  be  put  in.     When  running 
pipe  for  bracket  fixtures,  fitters  should  be  careful  when  there  are  two  or 
three  in  one  room  to  put  them  the  same  height  from  the  floor  and  see 
that  they  extend  just  the  same  length  through  the  plaster  so  as  to  make 
an  even  finish  for  back  plates. 

9.  In  leaving  openings  for  fireplace  logs,  they  should  be  one-half  inch 
in  fireplaces,  and  for  gas  stoves  they  should  not  be  less  than  one-half 
inch  and,  for  large  ones,  three-quarters  of  an  inch. 

10.  Fitters  should  not  run  risers  across  the  floor  under  the  tile  of  the 
vestibule  in  the  main  hall. 

11.  In  placing  one  or  more  fixtures  in  a  house,  the  fitter  should  always 
smell  of  the  joints  and  see  if  there  is  a  leak;  after  turning  on  the  gas  he 
should  watch  the  meter  and  see  whether  the  hands  on  the  dial  move,  if 
so  there  is  a  leak.     These  are  matters  which  are  ignored  by  fitters  alto- 
gether and  cause  a  great  loss  of  tune. 

12.  Fitters  should  examine  the  brackets  of  fixtures  after  the  gas  is 
burning,  for  very  often  the  nozzles  have  sandholes  in  them  and  the  fitter 

*  Issued  by  a  prominent  gas-piping  firm  in  Chicago. 


76  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

does  not  screw  his  burners  up  tight  and  does  not  put  them  on  properly. 
He  thinks  that  because  it  is  tight  to  the  key  that  is  sufficient. 

13.  In  all  new  work  in  houses,  offices  or  stores,  the  fitter  should  put 
on  his  pump  before  he  puts  the  fixtures  on  and  if  there  is  a  leak  and  he 
cannot  find  it  in  the  caps,  he  should  report  it  to  the  foreman  and  the 
parties  who  first  put  in  the  work  will  be  notified  and  they  will  have  to 
find  it,  but  should  the  fitter  put  on  the  fixtures  without  testing  and  if 
there  should  be  a  leak  afterward  he  would  be  held  responsible  for  it  and 
would  have  to  make  it  tight.  After  the  fixtures  are  all  up  and  tested  he 
should  report  to  the  gas  office  in  the  district  where  the  work  is  completed. 

FROM  "INSTRUCTIONS   FOR  GAS  DISTRIBUTION  EMPLOYES." 

J.  M.  ROBB. 

(Paper  read  before  the  Ohio  Gas  Light  Association,  in  March,  1906.) 

To  determine  the  size  of  a  gas  meter  is  largely  a  matter  of  judgment 
as  no  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  to  govern  all  cases.  Some- 
times, on  a  large  job,  only  one  or  two  gas  burners  will  ever  be  used  at  the 
same  time,  and  in  such  cases  a  meter  large  enough  to  supply  sufficient 
gas  to  all  of  the  burners  connected,  should  they  all  be  used  at  the  same 
time,  would  be  a  waste  of  money. 

Generally,  the  following  Table  will  apply : 

MAXIMUM  WORKING  CAPACITIES   OF  GAS  METERS. 

Cu.  Ft.  per  Hour. 

3-light 60 

Might 90 

10-light 120 

20-light 180 

30-light 270 

45-light 360 

60-light 420 

80-light 510 

100-light 600 

150-light 900 

The  above  capacities  are  for  a  drop  of  5  tenth  inches  of  pressure  be- 
tween the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  meter,  for  the  average  capacities  of  a 
number  of  meters  of  different  makes. 

If  conditions  are  such  that  this  drop  in  pressure  cannot  be  permitted, 
use  a  meter  of  next  larger  capacity  than  the  rating  required  by  the  appa- 
ratus to  be  supplied.  In  case  of  doubt,  report  the  matter  to  the  superin- 
tendent for  special  instructions. 

When  determining  the  required  size  of  a  meter,  rate  the  apparatus  to 
be  supplied  as  follows: 


Rides,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   77 


Cu.  Ft.  per  Hour. 

6 

5 

5 
15 
15 


Open  flame  burner,  each    ................. 

Mantle  burner,  each    ................... 

Arc  lamp,  per  mantle  each    ................ 

Top  stove  burner,  each  .    .•  ................ 

Oven  burner,  each    .................... 

Circulating  water  heater,  depending  on  size,  each    .....   30-60 

Instantaneous  water  heater,  each  .............       100 

Gas  grate,  each     .....................         35 

Gas  heater,  each  .....................   25-50 

Gas  engine,  per  horsepower  per  hour,  each     ........         30 


Never  set  less  than  a  54ight  meter  for  a  gas  stove. 

Never  set  less  than  a  10-light  meter  for  an  instantaneous  water  heater. 

With  a  little  attention  given  to  the  study  of  the  greatest  amount  of 
gas  that  the  meter  will  be  called  upon  to  pass  at  any  one  time,  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  selecting  the  size  meter  required.  In  cases  of  doubt 
be  on  the  safe  side.  It  is  better  to  set  too  large  a  meter  than  to  risk  a 
complaint  from  a  consumer. 

Always,  when  setting  a  meter,  teach  the  consumer  to  read  it,  if  you  can 
persuade  him  to  take  the  time,  and  tell  him  the  statement  of  the  meter 
you  are  setting  for  him. 

Plan  your  pipe  system  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


CAPACITIES  OF  GAS  PIPE  AND  GREATEST  LENGTH  PERMITTED. 


Diameter,  Inches. 

Length.  Feet. 

Capacity,  Cubic  Feet  per 
Hour. 

i 

20 
30 
50 

11 
22 
60 

1 

70 

127 

H 

100 

222 

I* 

150 

349 

2 

200 

718 

>i 

300 

1253 

3 

450 

1977 

4 

600 

4059 

Use  the  next  size  larger  when  the  length  in  the  table  for  a  given 
capacity  must  be  exceeded. 

Never  run  a  fuel  line  smaller  than  0.75  inch. 

Never  run  a  supply  pipe  to  a  gas  engine  less  than  1  inch. 

Always  make  a  run  of  pipe  for  a  hot  plate  of  0.75-inch  pipe,  unless  you 
are  sure  the  hot  plate  will  never  be  replaced  by  a  gas  stove. 

Always,  in  determining  the  size  of  pipe  to  be  run,  follow  the  table  for 


78 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


gas  consumption  of  various  apparatus,  given  under  "  Instructions  for 
setting  meters." 

Ask  for  special  instructions  when  you  are  running  piping  for  special 
fuel  apparatus. 


BRITISH  REGULATIONS  AS  TO  INTERNAL  GAS  FITTINGS.* 

1.  The  company  will  in  all  cases  lay  on  the  service  pipe,  conveying 
the  same  through  the  outer  wall  of  the  premises  to  be  supplied  with  gas. 

2.  The   main  cock  must  be  attached  to  the  end  of   the  service  pipe 
within  the  building,  and  close  to  the  outer  wall. 

3.  The  gas  meter  must  be  placed  perfectly  level,  either  on  the  floor, 
or  on  a  substantial  support,  and  within  2  feet  6  inches  of  the  main  cock. 

4.  The  piping  attached  to  the   meter,  whether  inlet  or  outlet,  must 
not  be  smaller  in  internal  diameter  than  that  of  the  meter  unions. 

5.  The  following  are  the  sizes  of    the  meters,  and   their  measuring 
capacity,  from  which  the  number  of  lights  which  they  supply  can  be 
readily  calculated : 


Size  of  Meters. 

Size  of  Inlet  and 
Outlets  in  Inches. 

Measuring  Capacity 
per  Revolution  in 
Cubic  Feet. 

Measuring  Capacity 
per  Hour  in  Cubic 
Feet. 

2-light  .    .    . 

] 

! 

A 

12 

3-light  .    .    . 

: 

i 

18 

5-light  .    .    . 

1 

! 

1 

30 

10-light  .    .    . 

1 

* 

60 

1  5-light  .    .    . 

1 

I 

90 

20-light  .    .    . 

1J 

i 

120 

30-light  .    .    . 

1 

H 

180 

50-light  .    .    . 

1 

2* 

300 

60-light  .    .    . 

1 

3 

360 

80-light  .    .    . 

1 

4 

480 

100-light  .    .    . 

2 

5 

600 

150-light  .    .    . 

3 

7| 

900 

200-light  .    .    . 

3 

10 

1200 

250-light  .    .    . 

4 

12| 

1500 

300-light  .    .    . 

4 

15 

1800 

400-light  .    .    . 

4 

20 

2400 

500-light  .    .    . 

5 

25 

3000 

600-light  .    .    . 

5 

30 

3600 

To  ascertain  the  number  of  burners  which  any  size  of  meter  will  supply, 
divide  the  measuring  capacity  per  hour  by  the  quantity  of  gas  per  hour 
which  each  jet  is  estimated  to  consume.  Example:  What  number  of 
burners  consuming  4  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  will  a  20-light  meter 
supply?  Then  120/4  —  30  burners. 

*  From  Thomas  Newbigging's  "Handbook  for  Gas  Engineers." 


Rules,  Tables  and  Regulations  of  Gas  Companies   79 

6.  The  following  are  the  sizes  and  lengths  of  iron,  lead,  or  composition 
tubes  to  be  used  according  to  the  number  of  ordinary  burners. 

(The  table  is  omitted  as  it  is  substantially  the  same  as  the  one  adopted 
by  the  Consolidated  Gas  Co.  of  N.Y.) 

7.  The  tubes  or  pipes  must  be  laid  with  proper  fall,  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  are  easily  accessible,  and  protected  from  liability  to 
damage.     Attention  is  to  be  given  to  leaving  a  space  round  them  at  such 
places  as  wall  crossings,  etc.,  where  fracture  or  crushing  of  the  pipes  might 
be  caused  by  the  subsidence  of  the  building.     The  joinings  of  the  tubes 
and  pipes  are  to  be  made  in  the  most  solid  and  substantial  manner;  and 
carefully  rounded  bends  (not  elbows)  are  to  be  used  wherever  the  direction 
of  the  pipe  is  changed. 

8.  Floor  boards  covering  pipes  must  be  secured  with  screws,  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  removed  to  afford  access  to  the  pipes,  especially  at 
the  points  of  connection. 

9.  On  the  completion  of  the  work  of  fitting,  and  before  the  piping  is 
covered  up,  notice  thereof  must  be  given  in  writing  to  the  gas  manager, 
who  will  cause  an  inspection  to  be  made  of  the  work,  and  if  found  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  herein  contained,  it  will  be  passed  by 
the  company,  and  the  gas  turned  on. 

10.  If  the  regulations  are  not  conformed  to  in  every  respect,  the  com- 
pany reserve  the  right  to  refuse  a  supply  of  gas  until  the  necessary 
alterations  are  made. 

11.  Gas-fitters    complying  with  these  regulations  have  their  names 
registered  on  the  company's  list  of  approved  gas-fitters,  and  they  are  at 
liberty   to   designate   themselves   "  authorized   gas-fitters."      Repeated 
negligence  will  cause  the  license  to  be  withdrawn. 

The  Table  of  Pipe  Sizes  of  the  Committee  of  North  British 
Gas  Association  is  substantially  the  same  as  the  one  adopted 
by  the  N.  Y.  Consolidated  Gas  Co. 

This  table  is  the  standard  of  the  principal  English  gas  works.  Services 
should  never  be  undersize,  as  the  difference  in  cost  is  not  proportionate 
to  the  advantage. 

For  gas  stoves  the  following  provisions  must  be  complied  with: 


Average  Inside  Size  of  Oven. 

Distance  of  Stove  from  the  Meter. 

11 

in. 

X 

11  X 

14  in  

(If 
{'If 

under 
under 

30 
60 

ft., 
ft., 

i-in. 
Hn. 

pipe 
pipe 

required 
required 

14 

in. 

X 

14  X 

24  in 

(If 
ilf 

under 
under 

30 
60 

ft., 
ft., 

l-in. 
*-in. 

pipe 
pipe 

required 
required 

15* 

in. 

X 

15*  X  24  in.      ... 

(If 
Uf 

under 
under 

30 
60 

ft., 
ft., 

l-in. 
l-in. 

pipe 
pipe 

required 
required 

19 

in. 

X 

18  X 

24  in 

(If 

ilf 

under 
under 

30 
60 

ft., 
ft., 

l-in. 
H-in. 

pipe 
pipe 

required 
required 

80 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


TABLE    TAKEN    FROM    THE    MUNICH    GAS    REGULATIONS    OF    1890, 


Length  of 

Size  of  Pipes. 

Pipe  in 

Meters. 

fin. 

iln. 

fin. 

fin. 

1  In. 

l£  In. 

l£  In. 

2  In. 

2 

3 

10 

18 

30 

60 

120 

180 

400 

4 

3 

8 

16 

25 

50 

100 

150 

320 

6 

2 

6 

13 

20 

40 

80 

120 

260 

8 

2 

5 

10 

15 

32 

64 

100 

220 

10 

1 

4 

8 

13 

25 

50 

80 

180 

15 

1 

3 

5 

9 

20 

40 

60 

155 

20 

2 

5 

8 

17 

35 

55 

132 

25 

1 

4 

7 

15 

30 

50 

120 

30 

1 

4 

6 

12 

25 

45 

112 

35 

3 

5 

11 

22 

40 

103 

40 

2 

4 

10 

20 

35 

96 

45 

2 

4 

9 

19 

30 

88 

50 

1 

3 

8 

17 

28 

80 

60 

1 

3 

7 

16 

26 

70 

70 

2 

6 

15 

24 

65 

80 

. 

2 

5 

14 

22 

60 

90 

.  .  . 

1 

4 

13 

20 

55 

100 

.  . 

1 

3 

12 

18 

50 

150 

2 

9 

15 

43 

200 

1 

8 

13 

36 

250 

7 

12 

30 

300 

... 

6 

11 

25 

No  pipe  to  be  less  than  f  inch. 

The  table  gives  the  number  of  burners,  each  at  5  cubic  feet  (142  liters). 

TABLE  OF  SIZES  OF  SERVICE   PIPES,  BY  D.  MONNIER,   FORMERLY  ENGI- 
NEER-IN-CHIEF    OF    THE    MARSEILLES    (FRANCE)    GAS   WORKS. 


Number  of  Burners. 

Size  of  Service 

Size  of  Service  in 
Millimeters. 

1  to  5 

f  inch 

20mm. 

6  to  10 

1    inch 

25  mm. 

11  to  20 

li  inch 

30mm. 

21  to  30 

1£  inch 

35  mm. 

31  to  40 

If  inch 

40  mm. 

41  to  60 

If  inch 

45  mm. 

61  to  80 

2    inch 

50  mm. 

81  to  100 

2J  inch 

55  mm. 

101  to  150 

2\  inch 

60  mm. 

151  to  200 

3    inch 

70  mm. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

PIPING  FOR    NATURAL  GAS. 

IN  certain  districts  of  the  United  States,  extensive  use  has 
been,  and  is  still  being,  made  of  natural  gas,  and  as  it  is  in 
many  respects  different  from  manufactured  or  city  gas,  it  seems 
desirable  to  devote  a  short  chapter  to  it,  and  to  refer  to  some 
special  rules  and  regulations  necessary  for  its  proper  and  safe 
use. 

Before  giving  these  rules,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  give  a  brief 
review  regarding  the  history,  production,  composition,  trans- 
mission and  utilization  of  natural  gas. 

Natural  gas  is  an  inflammable  gas,  generated  in  large  quanti- 
ties by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  deeper 
strata  of  the  earth;  the  gas  is  found  in  porous  rock,  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  coal  fields  and  in  the  oil  regions.  Many  of 
the  rocky  strata,  which  carry  oil  in  their  deeper  parts,  yield  gas 
in  their  higher  layers. 

Natural  gas  has  been  known  since  ancient  times  of  history. 
It  occurs  in  the  petroleum  oil  regions  of  the  Caucasus,  in  Italy, 
in  Alsace,  Persia,  China,  Northern  India,  and  in  many  localities 
of  the  United  States.  Near  the  oil  wells  at  Baku,  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  peninsula 
Apsheron,  numerous  gas  wells  exist,  chiefly  at  a  place  called 
Surachanah,  and  these  gas  springs  are  known  as  the  "  eternal 
burning  fires." 

Probably  the  largest  supply  of  natural  gas  occurs  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  was  first  discovered  about  the  year 
1821  at  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  Many  gas  wells  have  been  bored  in 
the  oil  regions  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  also  in  West  Virginia, 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  in  smaller  quantities  in  some 
other  states.  Since  about  1840,  natural  gas  has  been  used 
quite  extensively  as  fuel.  It  has  been  transmitted  in  pipe  lines 
for  very  long  distances  to  the  great  cities,  like  Buffalo,  Pitts- 
burg,  Detroit  and  Chicago,  and  many  villages  and  towns  in  the 
gas-well  regions  are  lighted  at  night  with  the  gas. 

81 


82  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

According  to  chemical  analysis,  natural  gas  is  a  mixture  of 
marsh  gas  with  other  hydrocarbons,  and  with  some  hydrogen, 
carbonic  acid,  and  nitrogen.  Marsh  gas  is  its  principal  constit- 
uent, the  amount  being  in  some  cases  as  high  as  75  per  cent. 

The  illuminating  power  of  natural  gas  is  far  below  that  of 
coal  gas,  but  it  can  be  improved  by  carburetting,  or  else  by 
burning  it  in  Welsbach  incandescent  mantle  burners ;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  has  one-third  more  heating  value  than  coal  gas,  hence  it 
is  largely  used  as  fuel,  not  only  in  industrial  establishments,  but 
also  in  dwelling  houses  in  cities  supplied  with  natural  gas. 

This  gas  is  obtained  from  the  earth  by  drilling  or  boring 
wells,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  for  oil  or  water. 
Iron-pipe  casings,  from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter  are  used, 
with  a  steel  shoe  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  A  gas  well  is  any 
well  from  which  natural  gas  issues  in  more  or  less  large  volume. 
Some  gas  wells  are  driven  or  bored  to  very  great  depths.  The 
locating  of  a  gas  well  is  about  as  uncertain  as  the  locating  of  a 
well  for  water,  except  in  those  districts  where  gas  has  been 
found  before.  When  gas  is  struck  in  such  a  well,  the  gas  some- 
times rushes  to  the  surface  under  a  very  heavy  pressure.  In 
some  cases,  water  is  yielded  with  the  gas  and  should  be  inter- 
cepted to  prevent  its  getting  into  the  distributing  conduits. 
The  gas  pressure  generally  becomes  less  after  a  number  of  gas 
wells,  located  not  far  apart,  have  been  drilled. 

Owing  to  this  high  pressure  of  natural  gas,  the  danger  from 
leaky  pipes,  in  buildings  where  natural  gas  is  used,  is  much 
greater  than  with  ordinary  gas,  and  likewise  the  risk  of  explo- 
sions. Natural  gas  explodes  violently  when  mixed  with  ten 
times  its  volume  of  air  and  then  lit,  hence  the  greatest  care  is 
required  from  the  gas-fitters,  and  pressure -reducing  valves  are 
always  inserted  on  the  gas  services. 

Much  use  has  been  made  of  this  kind  of  gas  for  heating  pur- 
poses, not  only  in  open  grates,  but  also  in  steam  boilers,  hot-air 
furnaces  and  other  heaters,  and  for  many  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, such  as  puddling  furnaces,  foundries,  enameling  works, 
potteries,  etc.,  it  has  been  of  inestimable  value. 

For  many  years  its  use  reduced  the  smoke  nuisance  in  Pitts- 
burg  and  other  cities,  which  formerly  used  bituminous  or  soft 
coal,  for  natural  gas  became  the  general  domestic  fuel  for  cook- 
ing ranges,  for  baking,  etc.  It  is  a  clean  and  easily  handled 
fuel,  which  when  properly  burned  creates  no  smoke.  Like  all 


Piping  for  Natural  Gas  83 

gaseous  fuel,  it  offers  the  advantage  of  leaving  no  ashes,  cinders, 
or  clinkers  like  coal. 

For  illuminating  purposes,  the  natural  gas  is  not  so  well 
adapted,  as  the  flame  is  neither  bright  nor  steady. 

Unfortunately,  the  supply  has  in  some  regions  of  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania  become  greatly  reduced,  the  annual  output  of 
gas  is  growing  less  every  year,  and  some  wells  have  ceased  to 
flow  gas  altogether,  particularly  in  the  gas-bearing  lime-stone 
regions.  In  Indiana,  too,  the  natural  gas  supply  is  becoming 
exhausted  and  many  wells  have  given  out. 

The  following  statistics  of  the  natural  gas  production  in  the 
United  States  in  the  year  1906,  prepared  by  B.  Hill,  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  and  taken  from  "Mineral 
Resources  of  the  United  States,  1906,"  are  of  interest. 

In  1906  the  production  of  natural  gas  amounted  to  388,- 
842,562,000  cubic  feet,  and  the  value  of  the  gas  product  was 
$46,873,932.  The  average  price  of  natural  gas  was  $5.00  per 
short  ton,  whereas  the  corresponding  price  for  bituminous  coal 
in  1906  was  only  $1.11. 

"The  difference  in  price,"  says  the  report,  "is  fully  made 
up  by  the  superior  fuel  efficiency  of  natural  gas,  and  by  the 
great  economy  of  labor  in  its  use,  and  the  saving  of  cost  in  the 
removal  of  ashes." 

In  1906  there  were  1871  natural  gas  companies  in  the  United 
States.  For  years  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  more 
recently  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Indian  Territory  produced 
more  gas  than  they  consumed.  In  1906  Pennsylvania  reversed 
the  conditions  and  borrowed  from  West  Virginia  to  make  up 
the  deficiency.  The  transportation  of  the  gas,  in  pipe  lines 
and  by  pumping,  is  so  much  cheaper  than  that  of  coal 
that  natural  gas  competes  with  coal  at  comparatively  great 
distances. 

In  the  following  I  give  the  rules  which  the  fire  marshal  of 
Pittsburg,  at  the  instance  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
issued  regarding  piping  for  natural  gas. 

All  pipes  must  be  tested  by  the  company's  inspectors  with  mercury 
column  to  ten  pounds  pressure,  from  end  of  line,  where  connection  is 
made,  to  end  of  pipes  under  grates,  stoves,  etc. 

The  fitter  should  have  his  pump  on  and  see  that  the  pipes  are  perfectly 
tight  before  sending  for  the  inspector. 

The  ends  of  pipes  under  grates,  stoves,  etc.,  should  first  be  capped,  so 


84  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

as  to  allow  the  stopcocks  to  be  tested;  then  remove  the  caps  and  see  if 
the  cocks  allow  the  gas  to  escape. 

In  case  the  mercury  drops,  a  test  for  leak,  by  putting  ether  in  the  pump, 
or  with  soap  water,  will  be  made. 

In  no  case  shall  a  fire  test  be  used  in  dwellings,  offices,  stores,  etc.  No 
cement  of  any  kind  shall  be  used  for  repairing  faulty  fittings  or  work; 
nor  is  the  use  of  blind  gaskets  permissible. 

When  an  attempt  to  hide  leaks  is  made,  the  name  of  the  fitter  will  be 
kept  on  record  in  this  office,  and  future  work  done  by  him  will  not  be 
approved  without  a  rigid  examination. 

In  running  pipes  in  buildings  no  set  rules  can  be  given,  except  that 
pipes  must,  in  all  cases,  when  possible,  be  so  placed  that  they  can  be 
easily  inspected,  and  that  in  case  of  accident  any  leaking  gas  may  escape 
easily. 

Cement  wall  carefully  where  the  service  pipe  enters  the  building,  and 
use  a  large  pipe  for  the  main  that  runs  through  the  cellar.  Provide 
valves  to  shut  off  gas  from  all  risers.  In  running  pipes  through  flues 
great  care  is  necessary,  and  lead  pipe  for  the  bends  should  not  be  used. 

Do  not  run  between  floors  or  walls  when  any  other  method  can  be 
employed.  Do  not  place  cocks  between  floors  or  ceilings.  Do  not  use 
any  valves  which  require  packing  at  the  stem  in  places  where  leaking 
gas  may  be  dangerous.  If  pipes  run  outside  of  walls,  provide  a  drip. 

Allow  plenty  of  air  under  the  grates,  so  that  the  hearthstone  may  not 
get  too  hot.  Set  the  back  tile  in  the  grate  so  that  the  unburned  gas  may 
be  directed  up  the  chimney,  and  not  allowed  to  enter  the  room. 

Admitting  more  air  under  the  grate,  so  that  it  will  percolate  through 
or  between!  the  hot  bars  in  grate,  results  in  a  cheerful  bright  fire  from 
bottom  of  grate  to  the  top  of  the  fittings,  and  also  in  front. 

In  fitting  up  a  building  all  gas-fitters  will  be  required  to  furnish  the 
gas  company,  which  is  to  supply  the  fuel,  with  a  statement  giving  the 
number  of  fireplaces  fitted  up,  and  also  any  additional  fireplaces  that 
may  be  connected  afterwards  in  the  same  building,  so  that  a  complete 
record  may  be  had  at  this  office.  Blank  forms  for  this  purpose  will  be 
furnished  by  the  different  companies  supplying  the  natural  gas. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  leak  of  natural  gas  is  not  so  per- 
ceptible as  that  of  artificial  gas,  on  account  of  the  very  slight  odor  arising 
from  it ;  and  consequently  more  care  should  be  taken  in  piping  a  building 
for  its  use. 

Fitters  should  also  remember  that  accidents  and  explosions  are  likely 
to  occur  through  defects  in  fittings  and  pipes;  and  as  the  introduction  of 
natural  gas  is  a  benefit  to  the  fitters,  to  the  community  at  large,  and  to 
the  insurance  companies,  the  fitters  should  do  all  in  their  power  to  make 
the  use  of  natural  gas  as  safe  as  possible;  and  they  can  materially  aid  in 
this  by  endeavoring  to  put  in  pipes  and  fittings  in  a  perfect  manner. 


Piping  for  Natural  Gas  85 

The  underwriters  have  issued  the  following  rules  regarding 
piping  for  natural  gas. 

MEMORANDUM  OF  CONDITIONS  FOR  THE  INTRODUCTION 
AND  USE  OF  NATURAL  GAS  AT  PITTSBURG,  BY  THE 
PITTSBURG  BOARD  OF  UNDERWRITERS. 

(a)   In  Manufacturing  Establishments. 

1.  When  gas  is  to  be  introduced  into  any  premises,  a  regulator  shall 
be  placed  as  remote  as  possible  from  building,  by  which  the  pressure 
shall  be  reduced  to  not  exceeding  two  pounds. 

2.  A  safety  valve  shall  be  placed  between  the  governor  or  regulator 
and  buildings,  which  will  blow  off  when  the  pressure  exceeds  two  pounds. 

3.  A  mercury  gauge  must  be  placed  inside  of  buildings  which  will 
indicate  the  exact  pressure  in  the  pipes. 

4.  All  pipes  leading  from  the  regulator,  and  into  the  mills,  shall  be 
of  as  large  diameter  as  possible ;  on  entering  building  it  shall  be  elevated 
and  carried  overhead,  and  above  all  furnaces  and  boilers. 

5.  Pipes,  valves,  and  fittings  shall  be  carefully  inspected,  when  the 
work  is  completed,  by  the  Secretary  of  this  Board,  before  the  privilege 
is  given  to  use  natural  gas. 

(6)   In  Dwellings. 

Natural  gas  for  fuel  may  be  used  under  the  following  conditions : 
All  pipes  and  fittings  must  be  tested  to  a  pressure  of  10  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  and  a  certificate  of  such  test  furnished  to  the  customer.  A 
pressure  regulator  must  be  .placed  on  service  pipe,  and  so  set  that  the 
pressure  at  which  the  gas  is  used  shall  not  exceed  four  ounces  to  the 
square  inch. 

Gas  should  not  be  burned  at  night,  unless  the  fires  are  all  turned  down 
low. 

(c)   In  Mercantile  Buildings. 

Pipes  and  fittings  to  be  tested  same  as  in  dwellings,  and  provided  with 
regulator,  pressure  not  to  exceed  four  ounces. 

All  fires  must  be  turned  off  at  night,  unless  a  competent  man  is  left  in 
charge. 

Note.  As  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained  the  danger  of  natural  gas  is  caused 
by  a  lack  of  proper  control  of  the  pressure,  and  it  is  very  dangerous  when 
the  pipes  are  connected  directly  with  the  wells. 

Underwriters  have  concluded  that  a  10-ounce  pressure  may  be  considered 
safe,  but  they  prefer  a  lower  pressure.  Experts  on  natural  gas  claim  that 
the  best  results,  as  to  combustion  and  safety,  are  obtained  with  4  ounces  of 
pressure. 


86 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


RULES  OF  PEOPLE'S  GAS-LIGHT  AND  COKE  COMPANY,  OF  CHICAGO,  FOR 
SIZE  OF  PIPE   FOR  NATURAL  GAS  FOR  FUEL. 


Classification  of  Appliances. 


Small,  portable,  gas  cooking  stove £  20 

Small,  portable,  gas  heating  stove %  20 

Kitchen  boiler  heater,  when  separated  from  range  .  J  20 
Miscellaneous  appliances  consuming  less  than  15 

cubic  feet  per  hour  each \  20 

Gas  cooking  ranges  30 

Ordinary  coal  ranges,  equipped  for  the  use  of  gas  .  30 

Large  heating  stoves f  30 

Gas  logs  or  other  grate  fires f  30 

Miscellaneous  appliances  consuming  40  to  75  cubic 

feet  of  gas  per  hour 1  60 

Hot-air  furnaces  for  heating  10-room  buildings  or  less  \\  70 

Hot-air  furnaces  for  heating  10  to  15-room  buildings  \\  100 
Low-pressure  steam  or  circulating  water  boiler  for 

heating  10  rooms  or  less \\  100 

Low-pressure  steam  or  circulating  water  boiler  for 

heating  10  to  15-room  house 2  140 

Low-pressure  steam  or  circulating  water  boiler  for 

heating  16  to  26-room  houses 2£  200 

Low-pressure  steam  or  circulating  water  boiler  for 

heating  27  to  50  rooms  .  .  .  ^ 3  300 

Low-pressure  steam  or  circulating  water  boiler  for 

heating  50  to  80  rooms 4               400 


Size  of 
Openings 
in  Inches. 


Greatest 
Length 
Allowed 
in  Feet. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PIPING   FOR   AIR   GAS   OR   GASOLINE   MACHINE   GAS. 

AIR  GAS,  as  was  stated  in  Chapter  I,  is  a  gas  obtained  by 
saturating  common  atmospheric  air  with  the  vapors  from  liquid 
hydrocarbons,    like    benzine    or    gasoline.  Tit    is,  therefore,  a  - 
mechanical  mixture,  and  the  gas  obtained  is  used  in  special 
burners  for  lighting,  cooking,  heating,  and  for  power  purposes.,  - 

The  apparatus  used  for  the  purpose  will  be  described  in  the 
chapter  on  "The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses."  It  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  automatic,  require  simple  manipulations,  but 
no  tedious  hand -regulation. 

If  the  gas  obtained  is  too  rich,  it  is  apt  to  smoke,  and  special 
ah*  mixers  are  used  with  the  best  apparatus  to  avoid  this  fault. 
For  lighting,  it  is  found  best  to  burn  the  gas  in  incandescent 
mantle  burners. 

The  ^precautions  to  be  taken  where  gasoline  gas  machines  are 
installed  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XIX,  and  it  will  suffice  to 
point  out  that  owing  to  the  dangerous  character  of  gasoline 
and  its  vapors,  it  is  necessary  to  have  all  pipes  absolutely  tight  f] 
Hence  the  specifications  for  piping  should  be  very  strict.  In 
the  following  I  give  a  complete  specification  for  gasoline  gas 
lighting,  which  was  published  by  the  Progressive  Age  and  copied 
by  them  from  Domestic  Engineering: 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  GASOLINE  GAS  LIGHTING. 
General  Conditions. 

The  owner  and  the  architect  wish  the  contractor  to  bear  these  points 
in  mind  throughout  the  installation  of  this  work,  viz : 

First.  —  That  although  many  other  ways  are  "  just  as  good  "  as  the 
specific  directions  here  given,  it  is  what  is  called  for  here  that  the  con- 
tractor agreed  to  do,  and  which  it  is  intended  he  shall  have  furnished 
before  the  work  is  completed,  unless  privilege  is  given  to  deviate  from 
that  for  which  contract  was  made. 

Second.  —  That  not  only  the  letter,  but  also  the  spirit,  of  these  speci- 
fications are  to  be  lived  up  to ;  that  is,  in  all  cases  wherein  the  good  judg- 

87 


88  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

ment  and  honesty  of  the  contractor  is  relied  upon  he  shall  endeavor  to 
embody  the  true  intentions  of  the  designer  in  his  work. 

To  aid  the  contractor  in  doing  this,  the  details  of  certain  connections, 
usually  left  entirely  to  the  will  of  the  workman,  are  given,  and  which  the 
contractor  will  make  the  disposition  and  the  workmanship  of  other  parts 
in  keeping  with. 

Third.  —  Award  of  the  contract  is  made  with  the  understanding  that 
the  contractor  will  not  scrimp  or  slight  the  work  in  any  sense  at  any 
point,  even  though  there  is  opportunity  to  do  so,  and  take  refuge  behind 
some  technicality  in  the  wording  of  the  specifications.  In  short,  any- 
thing that  is  obviously  needed  or  necessary  to  make  a  complete,  durable, 
and  satisfactory  job  for  this  particular  house,  with  the  fixtures  specified, 
is  be  to  furnished  and  put  in  place  as  a  part  of  the  work  in  this  contract. 

The  contractor  will  furnish,  transport  at  his  own  cost,  and  put  under 
such  cover  as  the  premises  afford,  at  his  own  cost,  all  the  material  to  be 
used  on  the  work.  He  will  also  pay  all  railroad  fare  to  and  from  the 
premises,  occasioned  by  himself  and  workmen,  and  pay  living  expenses 
of  workmen  for  whatever  time  they  board  in  the  vicinity,  while  the  work 
is  being  put  in. 

The  contractor  shall  progress  with  this  work  so  as  not  to  cause  unneces- 
sary expense  or  delay  to  other  contractors.  Their  contracts  bind  them 
to  reciprocal  treatment. 

Setting  the  Apparatus. 

Furnish,  transport  to  premises,  and  set  one  carburettor  and  air  pump 
complete  and  ready  for  good  service,  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  fifty 
(50)  5-cubic-feet-per-hour  burners  at  the  same  time  and  capable  of 
utilizing  86-degree  gasoline  with  the  least  heavy  residual  product. 

The  manufacturer's  instructions  for  setting  the  carburettor  and  pump 
will  be  carried  out  to  the  letter,  and  if  the  maker  of  the  machine  does  not 
so  specify,  the  following,  in  addition  to  the  maker's  requirements,  will 
be  embodied  in  the  work  of  setting  the  machine  without  extra  cost  to 
the  owner. 

A  union  will  be  placed  in  each  line  connecting  to  the  carburettor,  near 
the  carburettor. 

Both  the  air  supply  and  the  carburetted-air  pipe  will  incline  down  to 
the  carburettor  from  the  pump  and  house  riser,  respectively. 

A  union  will  be  placed  in  the  air  pipe,  and  one  in  the  run  to  the  riser, 
within  the  cellar. 

The  "  runs  "  to  the  carburettor  shall  be  below  frost  line  of  zero 
weather,  at  all  points,  and  firmly  supported  by  the  trench  bottom,  direct 
or  otherwise,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  no  traps  resulting  from  settling 
of  the  dirt  over  the  pipes. 

The  carburettor  will  be  set  at  the  rear  of  the  house  not  less  than  thirty 
(30),  nor  more  than  fifty  (50)  feet  from  center  of  rear  line  of  house.  It 


Piping  for  Air  Gas  or  Gasoline  Machine  Gas      89 

may  be  assumed  that  the  carburet  cor  will  be  placed  just  outside  of  a 
line  drawn  thirty  feet  from  and  parallel  to  the  rear  line  of  the  house.  If 
more  than  fifty  feet  of  pipe  are  required  for  the  air-pipe  "  run  "  from 
foundation  wall  to  carburettor,  the  owner  will  pay  extra  for  it. 

The  pump  will  be  placed  in  the  cellar  near  a  wall,  at  a  point  requiring 
the  shortest  "  run  "  to  the  carburettor .j 

Where  air  and  gas  pipes  pass  through  the  wall  to  the  carburettor,  tees 
will  be  placed  with  opening  full  size  of  the  line,  in  line  with  the  runs  and 
openings  plugged. 

An  opening  for  three-eighth-inch  pipe  will  be  placed  in  gas  pipe  near 
pump  and  plugged. 

The  gas  pipe  will  be  required  to  connect  with  house  main  at  point 
marked  (X)  on  plans  which  may  be  inferred  near  enough  for  estimating 
purposes  by  referring  to  specifications  governing  distributing  pipes. 
*~The  pump  and  carburettor  pipes  and  connections  shall  be  the  full  size 
of  openings  in  pump  and  carburettor. 

r~Both  the  air  and  the  carburetted-air  pipe  will  have  a  stopcock  in  cellar 
near  exit  points. 

In  this  job  the  owner  will  excavate  pit  and  trench  for  carburettor  and 
pipes  and  fill  same  when  the  contractor  is  ready.  If  the  machine  used 
requires  a  vault  walled  up  with  manhole  cover  and  ring,  the  owner  will 
provide  same  at  his  own  cost.  The  owner  will  also  furnish  and  deliver 
on  premises,  at  his  own  cost,  the  gasoline  with  which  to  give  the  machine 
an  actual  test.  The  first  gasoline  will  be  put  in  and  machine  started  by 
contractor  as  part  of  his  contract. 

The  contractor  will  make  his  bid  in  a  way  to  show  how  much  he  will 
allow  or  deduct  in  case  the  owner  decides  to  omit  the  carburettor  and 
pump  and  their  connections  as  hereinbefore  described. 

House  Piping. 

The  house-service  main  will  begin  at  a  point  convenient  to  reach  the 
cellar  light  nearest  to  the  rear  wall,  and  will  be  one  and  one-half  (1.5) 
inches  in  diameter  to  within  three  feet  of  the  rising  mains,  which  will  be 
three  in  number  and  1.25  inches  in  diameter  eachu 

Previous  to  dividing  the  main  for  the  three  risers,  a  tee  with  a  one-inch 
opening,  plugged  and  turned  to  the  side,  will  be  put  in  the  line. 

The  branches  for  the  rising  mains  will  be  provided  with  stopcocks, 
properly  labeled,  placed  near  the  division  of  the  main. 

The  distributing  pipes  will  be  so  disposed  that  one  of  the  rising  mains 
will  supply  all  the  center  fixtures  on  the  first  floor,  and  all  the  bracket 
fixtures  for  the  second  floor.  If  the  owner  wishes  two  veranda  fixtures, 
their  supplies  will  be  run  from  a  first-floor  center  or  a  second-floor  bracket 
fixture  supply. 

The  second  rising  main  will  supply  all  second-floor  center  fixtures,  and 
third  or  attic-floor  bracket  fixtures. 


90  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

The  third  riser  will  supply  third-story  center  fixtures  and  lanterns  on 
deck  of  roof,  and  also  fixtures  in  pipe-way  passage  to  storage  tank. 

The  rising  mains  will  be  full  size  to  first,  second,  and  third-floor  ceiling 
joists,  respectively. 

All  other  branch  pipes  and  mains  will  be  made  one  size  larger  than  is 
required  for  same  number  of  burners  and  distance  on  coal-gas  work. 

Main  risers  will  be  of  galvanized  pipe. 

No  pipe  used  for  gas  in  this  work  will  be  less  than  0.375-inch  inside 
diameter. 

All  first-floor  bracket  fixtures  will  be  supplied  from  the  branch  which 
supplies  the  cellar  fixtures. 

The  branch  for  the  first-floor  and  cellar  bracket  fixtures  will  be 
0.75-inch  and  will  be  furnished  with  a  stopcock  and  label  in  keeping 
with  the  cocks  on  rising  mains. 

This  arrangement  of  the  distributing  pipes  provides  for  supplying  all 
first-floor  and  cellar  bracket  fixtures  by  a  branch  from  house  main,  con- 
trolled by  a  stopcock;  all  first-floor  center  fixtures,  veranda  fixtures,  and 
second-floor  bracket  fixtures  from  a  separate  riser  controlled  by  a  stop- 
cock; all  fixtures  above  level  of  second-floor  bracket  fixtures,  except 
third-story  center,  deck  lanterns,  from  a  separate  main  also  controlled  by 
a  stopcock. 

The  pipe  used  inside  of  the  house  on  this  gas  work,  except  rising  mains, 
will  be  plain  wrought  iron,  all  new  and  perfect,  and  of  the  same  quality 
as  would  be  used  for  water  work. 

The  fittings  will  be  malleable  iron,  galvanized  throughout. 

The  cocks  will  be  heavy  lever-handle,  round- way,  of  brassa  with  hexagon 
ends. 

The  thread  joints  will  be  made  with  asphalt  varnish,  except  where 
ceiling  drops  screw  in  and  where  nipples  are  used  to  extend  through 
plaster  for  bracket  lights;  these  will  be  screwed  up  hot  in  gas-fitters' 
cement.* 

Ceiling  drops  will  extend  four  inches  below  plaster,  and  must  be 
securely  fastened  so  they  cannot  be  pushed  in  any  direction  at  the  upper 
end  nor  at  a  point  just  above  the  laths. 

Bracket  openings  will  be  set  so  as  to  protrude  uniformly  about  one 
inch  through  the  plaster. 

Caps  on  bracket  outlets  and  drops  will  be  screwed  up  only  moderately 
tight,  in  gas-fitters'  cement.* 

The  fittings  into  which  drops  and  bracket  nipples  are  fitted  must 
be  fastened  in  place  so  securely  that  any  drop  or  nipple  for  bracket 
may  be  removed  and  put  in  place  again  easily  without  cutting  floor 
or  wall. 

Bracket  toilet  light  openings  will  be  4  feet  10  inches  from  top  of  floor; 

*  The  author  does  not  approve  of  the  use  of  gas-fitters'  cement  as  specified. 
— W.  P.  G. 


Piping  for  Air  Gas  or  Gasoline  Machine  Gas    91 

hall,  kitchen,  pantry,  and  bathroom  bracket  lights  will  be  6  feet  from  top 
of  floor  boards. 

Every  inch  of  gas  pipe  supplying  burners  must  have  a  distinct  "  fall," 
so  that  it  will  drain,  either  toward  the  carburettor  or  toward  a  fixture  or 
bracket,  preferably  to  the  carburettor. 

Previous  to  putting  in  place,  every  fitting  and  pipe  will  be  tested  by 
exhausting  the  air  with  the  lungs,  and  the  pipe  will  be  blown  through  to 
insure  it  being  clear. 

All  pipe  will  be  well  fastened  in  place,  and  so  "  routed  "  as  to  run 
between  joists,  if  possible ;  if  pipe  crosses  joists,  it  must  be  near  supports. 

A  0.75-inch  plugged  branch  will  be  placed  in  main  in  cellar  for  supply 
to  gas  range,  and  a  0.5-inch  capped  opening  will  be  placed  in  bathroom 
for  heating  purposes;  location  of  opening  optional  with  owner. 

If  owner  desires,  0.5-inch  drops  will  be  placed  in  parlor  and  library  and 
extend  1  foot  through  plastering;  otherwise  all  drops  will  be  0.375-inch 
pipe. 

For  estimating  purposes,  bidders  will  assume  that  the  number  of 
openings  for  brackets  and  gasoliers,  all  told,  will  not  exceed  forty.  If 
more  are  wanted,  the  owner  will  pay  extra. 

The  owner,  or  his  wife,  or  both,  will  go  over  the  plans  or  visit  the  build- 
ing, in  company  with  the  contractor  or  his  workmen,  for  the  purpose  of 
locating  the  openings  for  fixtures,  etc.,  before  the  work  is  commenced. 

In  locating  fixtures,  due  attention  will  be  paid  to  probable  drafts, 
height  of  ceilings,  width  of  dressing  cases  to  be  used,  and  common  centers 
of  spaces  to  be  lighted,  etc. 

Test  of  Piping. 

When  the  gas  pipe  in  the  house  is  installed,  the  contractor  will,  at  his 
own  expense,  test  the  entire  system  under  air  pressure  sufficient  to  sup- 
port a  column  of  mercury  10  inches  high,  using  a  mercury  gauge  for  the 
purpose.  If  the  pipe  is  not  tight,  he  will  stop  the  leaks  in  a  permanent 
manner. 

I  also  quote  in  full  a  very  compact  and  practical  specification 
issued  some  years  ago  by  the  Springfield  Gas  Machine  Co. : 

SPECIFICATIONS  OF  THE  SPRINGFIELD  GAS  MACHINE  CO., 
FOR  PLACING  GAS  PIPES  IN  POSITION. 

Kind  of  Pipe. 

1.  Ordinary  wrought-iron  pipe,  such  as  is  used  for  steam  or  water, 
is  suitable  and  proper  for  all  kinds  of  gas. 

Kind  of  Fittings. 

2.  Galvanized  malleable-iron  fittings,  in  distinction  from  plain  iron 
are  very  superior.     The  coating  of  zinc  inside  and  out  effectually  and 


92  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

permanently  covers  all  blow-holes,  makes  the  work  solid  and  durable, 
and  avoids  the  use  of  perishable  cement. 

Precautions  about  Obstructions. 

3.  Before  the  pipe  is  placed  in  position  it  should  be  looked  and  blown 
through.     It  is  not  infrequent  that  it  is  obstructed,  and  this  precaution 
will  save  much  damage  and  annoyance. 

Avoid  the    Use  of  Cement. 

4.  What  is  known  as  gas-fitters'  cement  should  never  be  used.     It 
cracks  oft7  easily;  in  warm  places  it  will  melt,  and  it  can  be  dissolved  by 
several  different  kinds  of  gas.     Nothing  but  solid  metals  are  admissible 
for  confining  gas  of  any  kind. 

Cutting  Floor  Timbers. 

5.  When  pipes  under  floors  run  across  floor  timbers,  the  latter  should 
be  cut  into  near  their  ends,  or  where  supported  on  partitions,  in  distinction 
from  being  cut  in  or  near  the  centers  of  rooms.     It  is  evident  that  a 
ten-inch  timber,  notched  two  inches  in  its  middle  is  no  stronger  than  an 
eight-inch. 

Side  Outlets. 

6.  All  branch  outlet  pipes  should  be  taken  from  the  sides  or  tops  of 
running  lines. 

Taking  Drops  from  Running  Lines. 

7.  Never  drop  a  center  pipe  from  the  bottom  of  a  running  line. 
Always  take  such  outlet  from  the  side  of  the  pipe. 

Bracket  Pipes. 

8.  Bracket  pipes  should  be  run  up  from  below,  in  distinction  from 
dropping  from  overhead. 

The  Drip  of  Pipes. 

9.  The  whole  system  of  piping  must  be  free  from  low  places  or  traps, 
and  decline  toward  the  main  rising  pipe,  which  should  run  up  in  a  parti- 
tion as  near  the  center  of  the  building  as  is  practical.     It  is  obvious  that 
where  gas  is  distributed  from  the  center  of  a  building,  smaller  running 
lines  of  pipe  will  be  needed  than  when  the  main  pipe  runs  up  on  one  end. 
Hence,  timbers  will  not  require  as  deep  cutting,  and  the  flow  of  gas  will 
be  more  regular  and  even.     For  the  same  reason,  in  large  buildings, 
more  than  one  riser  may  be  advisable. 

Drip  Pipes. 

10.  When  a  building  has  different  heights  of  post,  it  is  always  better 
to  have  an  independent  rising  pipe  for  each  height  of  post,  in  distinction 
from  dropping  a  system  of  piping  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  post,  and  grad- 


Piping  for  Air  Gas  or  Gasoline  Machine  Gas      93 

ing  to  a  low  point  and  establishing  drip  pipes.  Drip  pipes  in  a  building 
should  always  be  avoided.  The  whole  system  of  piping  should  be  so 
arranged  that  any  condensed  gas  will  flow  back  through  the  system,  and 
into  the  service  pipe  in  the  ground. 

Fastening  Outlet  Pipes, 

11.  All  outlet  pipes  should  be  so  securely  and  rigidly  fastened  in 
position  that  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  their  moving  when  the  gas 
fixtures  are  attached.     Center  pipes  should  rest  on  a  solid  support,  fas- 
tened to  the  floor  timbers  near  their  tops.     The  pipe  should  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  support  to  prevent  lateral  movement.     The  drop  pipes 
must  be  perfectly  plumb,  and  pass  through  a  guide  fastened  near  the 
bottom  of  the  timbers,  which  will  keep  them  in  position  despite  the 
assaults  of  lathers,  masons,  and  others. 

Height  of  Bracket  Pipes  and  Length  of  Nipples. 

12.  In  the  absence  of  express  directions  to  the  contrary,  outlets  for 
brackets  should  generally  be  four  feet  and  six  inches  high  from  the  floor, 
except  that  it  is  usual  to  put  them  six  feet  in  halls,  and  five  feet  in  bath- 
rooms.    The  upright  pipes  should  be  plumb,  so  that  the  nipples,  that 
project  through  the  walls,  will  be  level.     The  nipples  should  project  not 
more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  face  of  the  plastering. 
Laths  and  plaster  together  are  usually  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick; 
hence,  the  nipples  should  project  one  and  one-half  inches  from  the  face 
of  the  studding. 

Length  of  Drop  Pipes. 

13.  Drop  center  pipes  should  project  one  and  one-half  inches  below 
the  furring,  or  timbers  if  there  be  no  furring,  where  it  is  known  that  there 
will  be  no   stucco  or  centerpieces   used.     Where  centerpieces  are  to  be 
used,  or  where  there  is  a  doubt  whether  there  will  be  some  or  not,  then 
the  drop  pipes  should  be  left  about  a  foot  below  the  furring.     All  pipes 
being  properly  fastened,  the  drop  pipe  can  be  safely  taken  out  and  cut 
to  the  right  length,  when  gas  fixtures  are  put  on. 

Location  of  Pipes. 

14.  Gas  pipes  should  never  be  placed  on  the  bottoms  of  floor  timbers 
that  are  to  be  lathed  and  plastered,  because  they  are  inaccessible  in  the 
contingency  of  leakage,  or  when  alterations  are  desired,  and  gas  fixtures 
are  insecure. 

Proving  Pipes. 

15.  The  whole  system  of  piping  should  be  proven  to  be  air-  and  gas- 
tight  under  a  pressure  of  air  that  will  raise  a  column  of  mercury  six  inches 
high  in  a  glass  tube.     The  pipes  are  either  tight  or  they  leak.     There  is 
no  middle  ground.     If  they  are  tight,  the  mercury  will  not  fall  a  particle. 


94 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


A  piece  of  paper  should  be  pasted  on  the  glass  tube,  even  with  the  mer- 
cury, to  mark  its  height  while  the  pressure  is  on.  The  system  of  piping 
should  remain  under  test  for  at  least  a  half-hour. 

Inspection. 

16.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  the  person  in  charge  of  the  construction 
of  the  building  to  thoroughly  inspect  the  system  of  gas-fitting,  surely  as 
much  so  as  to  inspect  any  other  part  of  the  building. 

He  should  know  from  personal  observation  that  these  specifications 
are  complied  with.  After  being  satisfied  that  the  mercury  does  not  fall, 
he  should  cause  caps  on  the  outlets  to  be  loosened  in  different  parts  of 
the  building,  first  loosening  one  to  let  some  air  escape,  at  the  same  time 
observing  if  the  mercury  falls,  then  tighten  it,  and  repeat  the  operation 
at  other  points.  This  plan  will  prove  whether  the  pipes  are  free  from 
obstruction  or  not. 

When  he  is  satisfied  that  the  whole  work  is  properly  and  perfectly 
executed,  he  should  give  the  workmen  a  certificate  to  that  effect,  and  no 
job  of  gas-fitting  should  be  considered  complete  until  such  certificate 
is  issued. 

Sizes  of  Pipes. 

17.  The  following  scale  of  sizes  of  pipes  and  number  of  burners  to  be 
supplied  therefrom  is  found  by  experience  to  be  best  adapted  for  securing 
a  good  flow  of  common  city  gas,  and  it  is  very  important  that  it  be 
rigidly  observed,  when  machine  or  air  gas  is  to  be  used.     Do  not  confound 
fixture  outlets  with  burners.     In  establishing  the  sizes  of  pipe  in  a  build- 
ing, count  the  number  of  burners  that  there  will  be  on  each  outlet,  and 
have  the  pipes  of  a  size  to  correspond  therewith. 


Greatest  Number  of  Feet 
to  be  Run. 

Size  of  Pipe. 

Greatest  Number  of  Burn- 
ners  to  be  Supplied. 

20  feet 

|  inch 

2 

30  feet 

£  inch 

4 

50  feet 

|  inch 

15 

70  feet 

1    inch 

25 

100  feet 

H  inch 

40 

150  feet 

1|  inch 

70 

200  feet 

2    inch 

140 

300  feet 

2£  inch 

225 

400  feet 

3    inch 

300 

500  feet 

4    inch 

500 

Finally,  I  reprint  in  full  the  rules  for  the  guidance  of  gas- 
fitters,  issued  by  the  Detroit  Heating  and  Lighting  Company. 
These,  as  well  as  the  other  rules  quoted,  are  fully  applicable  to 
modern  gas  piping. 


Piping  for  Air  Gas  or  Gasoline  Machine  Gas      95 

RULES  OF  THE  DETROIT  HEATING    AND  LIGHTING  COMPANY 

To  be  observed  by  gas-fitters  for  properly  laying  gas  pipe,  for  either 
gasoline  or  coal  gas. 

1.  As  a  rule,  the  carburettor  is  located  at   the  rear  or  side  of  the 
building  to  be  lighted,  and  at  a  point  somewhat  lower  than  where  the 
building  stands.     The  location  of  the  riser  should  be  as  near  that  of 
the  carburettor  as  practicable,  on  an  inside  wall,  and  in  that  portion  of 
the  building  that  will  allow  the  pipes  to  have  a  fall  towards  it  with  the 
least  possible  cutting  of  joists. 

2.  In  large  buildings  it  is  sometimes  difficult   to  get  a  fall   to  the 
pipes  without  considerable  cutting  of  joists ;  in  such  cases  we  recommend 
having  two  or  more  risers  at  different  locations. 

3.  Keep  the  upper  end  of  the  riser,  or  tee,  where  you  take  off  the 
connection  for  horizontal  pipe,  low  enough  to  enable  you  to  get  the 
desired  fall  to  all  the  pipe  connecting  into  riser  at  that  point. 

4.  All  pipe  in  a  building  that  is  warm,  and  where  joists  have  to  be 
cut,  should  have  a  fall  of  at  least  ^  inch  to  the  foot;   in  buildings  or 
parts  of  buildings  where  the  pipe  is  exposed  and  where  it  is  not  necessary 
to  cut  joists,  the  fall  should  be  at  least  £  inch  to  the  foot,  but  if  it  is  con- 
venient to  get  more,  it  is  all  the  better  to  have  it,  as  you  cannot  get  too 
much,  especially  in  cold  places. 

5.  If  the  building  is  so  constructed  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  have 
aH  the  pipes  laid  with  a  fall  toward  the  riser,  the  pipes  may  be  laid  with 
a  fall  toward  some  convenient  point  and  connected  into  a  drip  can,  so  the 
condensation  will  run  into  the  can  instead  of  into  the  riser.     This  can 
should,  where  possible,  be  placed  outside  of  the  building  or  in  the  cellar, 
and  never  in  a  place  where  it  can  be  gotten  at  conveniently,  excepting 
when  necessary. 

6.  A  stopcock  must  be  put  on  the  pipe  before  it  is  connected,  so  that 
the  gas  can  be  shut  off  from  the  can  while  it  is  being  emptied. 

7.  Under  no  circumstances  must  there  be  any  sags  or  traps  in  the 
pipe.     Every  inch  of  pipe  must  have  a  fall  towards  the  main  riser,  and 
this  must  be  determined  by  the  use  of  a  spirit  level.     Never  depend  on 
the  joists  or  floors,  as  they  are  seldom  level.     A  very  good  way  to  do  is  to 
put  a  piece  of  wood,  the  thickness  of  the  fall  the  pipe  is  supposed  to  have 
in  two  feet,  on  the  bottom  of  the  level,  two  feet  from  one  end,  then  you 
can  run  the  level  along  the  pipe  and  see  that  it  is  proper  with  but  little 
trouble. 

8.  All  pipe  should  be  secured  with  gas-fitters'  hooks  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  it  impossible  for  any  portion  of  it  to  settle  and  form  traps. 

9.  All  drops  must  be  taken  from  the  side  or  top  of  main  line  of  pipe, 
and  run  horizontally  to  location  of  drops.     The  drop  must  be  securely 
screwed  up,  well  stayed  both  at  top  and  bottom  of  joists,  hung  plumb, 
and  brought  about  three  inches  below  bottom  of  joists;  if  centerpieces 


96 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


are   used,  the   drops  will   have  to  be  longer,  according  to  thickness  of 
centerpiece. 

10.  All  brackets  must  be  supplied  from  the  pipe  in  the  floor  below. 
Drop  elbows  should  be  securely  fastened  to  wall  to  prevent  turning  when 
brackets  are  being  put  on.     Where  pipe  is  run  on  a  brick  wall,  the  brick 
should  be  chipped  out  to  allow  the  pipe  to  be  sunk  in  so  the  plaster  will 
fully  cover  it. 

11.  Use  white  lead  mixed  with  boiled  oil  for  making  joints,  being  very 
careful  not  to  get  so  much  of  it  in  the  fitting  or  on  the  pipe  that  when 
screwed  together  the  lead  will  close  up  the  opening. 

12.  Each  piece  of  pipe  should  be  looked  into  or  blown  through  to  see 
that  the  bore  is  clear. 

13.  No  pipe  should  be  laid  on  an  outside  wall  or  in  exposed  places. 
If  impossible  to  avoid  doing  so,  they  should  be  well  protected  by  boxing 
or  wrapping. 

14.  No  riser  in  any  building  should  be  less  than  one  inch  (inside)  in 
diameter,  and  no  pipe  used  in  any  portion  of  the  building,  even  to  supply 
one  light,  should  be  less  than  0.375  incji. 

15.  The  following  table  gives  the  proportionate  sizes  and  lengths  of 
pipe  allowed  by  us  to  be  run: 


Size  of  Pipe. 

Greatest  Length  Allowed. 

Greatest  Kuniber  of 

Lights. 

|  inch 

15  feet 

3 

i  inch 

20  feet 

6 

f  inch 

50  feet 

12 

1    inch 

75  feet 

25 

1J  inch 

90  feet 

75 

H  inch 

125  feet 

100 

2    inch 

150  feet 

200 

16.  Where   additions  are  made  to  piping,  the  connections   for  addi- 
tional outlets  should  in  all  cases  be  taken  from  pipe  where  the  rule  for 
sizes  can  be  followed. 

17.  In  buildings  where  there  are  prospects  of  adding  burners  to  present 
number,  the  pipes  put  in  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  for  all 
possible  additions. 

18.  After  all  the  pipe  is  in,  it  must  be  tested  with  at  least  five  pounds 
air  pressure.     If  there  are  any  large  leaks,  either  sandholes  or  splits,  the 
defective  piece  must  be  taken  out  and  replaced  by  a  perfect  one. 

If  the  leaks  are  very  small,  they  may  be  repaired  by  caulking  them, 
with  the  pressure  on,  using  soapsuds  to  tell  when  leak  is  stopped,  and 
then  cement  them. 

Cementing  them  without  first  caulking  is  useless  and  must  not  be 
done. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PIPING  FOR  ACETYLENE  GAS. 

SPEAKING  generally,  the  piping  of  buildings  for  acetylene 
gas  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  piping  as  done  for  coal 
or  illuminating  gas,  except  in  one  respect,  namely  in  the  sizes 
required  for  the  pipes. 

As  is  well  known,  the  burners  used  in  acetylene  gas-lighting 
are  of  much  smaller  capacity  than  ordinary  gas  burners;  it  is 
usual  to  use  burners  using  from  0.5  to  0.7  cubic  feet  of  gas  per 
hour.  It  would,  therefore,  seem  as  if  much  smaller  pipes  were 
required  for  acetylene  gas.  On  the  other  hand,  the  specific 
gravity  of  acetylene  gas  is  much  higher  than  that  of  coal  gas, 
and  this  naturally  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  fixing 
upon  the  pipe  sizes. 

The  diameters  of  the  gas  mains  and  services  for  acetylene 
must  be  of  such  size  that  they  will  supply  the  maximum  re- 
quired volumes  of  gas  to  the  burners  without  the  necessity  of 
carrying  an  excessive  pressure  in  the  pipes. 

The  flow  of  all  gases  through  pipes  is  expressed  by  the  well- 
known  formula  of  Dr.  W.  Pole,  established  by  him  in  1852,  in  a 
paper  on  "The  Motion  of  Fluids  in  Pipes,"  namely: 

Q  =,780  J*L*jl     .......     (1) 

s  X  I, 
in  which 

I  =  length  of  pipe  in  feet, 
d  =  internal  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches, 
h  —  actuating  pressure  in  inches  of  head  of  water, 
s  =  specific  gravity  of  gas,  air  being  =  1. 
Q  =  volume  of  gas  delivered  by  pipe  in  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Or,  if  we  express  I  in  yards  instead  of  feet, 


Q  -1350<P  ......     (2) 

97 


98  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


and  d=  .......     (3) 

(1350)2  X  h 

Because  of  the  increased  friction  in  the  smaller  pipes,  the  for- 
mula was  modified  by  Bernat  so  as  to  read 

Q  -  1313.4 

s  X  I 

and  if  we  take         s  =  .91  for  acetylene 


we  have  Q  =  1376.9  WL  (5) 


and  d  =0.05552  y^-^^ (6) 

ii 

A  still  later  formula  for  acetylene  gas-piping  is  that  of  Morel, 
which  gives 

d  -  0.045122  (7) 


and  Q  =  2312.2  V  JL^L (8) 


For  convenient  tables  worked  out  from  this  formula  see  Leeds 
and  Butterfield,  "Acetylene,"  London,  1903. 

The  piping  for  acetylene  gas  must  be  perfectly  sound,  and 
the  joints  must  be  perfectly  tight.  It  is  advisable  to  use  only 
the  very  best  class  of  gas-fittings,  which  should  be  either  beaded 
fittings  or  the  heavier  steam -fittings.  The  gas-fitter's  work 
should  be  done  with  the  utmost  care,  the  fittings  must  be  well- 
threaded  and  the  threads  on  the  ends  of  pipes  cut  sharp  and 
clear,  so  as  to  secure  tightness  by  metallic  contact  between 
pipe  and  fittings.  No  lead  or  composition  pipe  should  be  used 
for  acetylene  gas,  as  it  is  too  liable  to  be  damaged  where  ex- 
posed, and  to  be  pierced  by  nails  where  concealed. 

All  piping  should  be  rigorously  tested,  and  any  leaks  found 
repaired.  The  test  should  be,  if  anything,  more  severe  than 
that  for  pipes  carrying  coal  or  water  gas.  Regarding  fixtures, 
jointed  brackets  and  sliding  chandeliers  should  be  avoided  on 
account  of  the  greater  risk  of  leakage.  Ordinary  rubber  hose 
for  portable  lamps  should  be  avoided,  and  only  metallic  flexible 
hose  connections  used. 


Piping  for  Acetylene  Gas 


99 


In  a  paper  on  acetylene  generator  installations,  by  Mr. 
Meissner,  published  in  1906,  he  advises  that  the  piping 
should  not  be  too  small.  "No  mistake  is  made,"  he  says,  "by 
using  too  large  pipe,  while  a  serious  mistake  can  be  made  by 
using  too  small  pipe." 

I  give  below  a  few  tables  of  piping  for  acetylene  gas,  which 
show  a  great  diversity  in  the  requirements.  Note,  for  in- 
stance, that  the  sizes  called  for  by  the  rules  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  are  the  same,  substantially,  as 
those  called  for  for  ordinary  gas. 

The  following  table  shows  the  size  of  pipe  to  use  to  carry  the 
amount  of  gas  at  the  left  column,  to  the  distance  at  the  top 
column,  allowing  a  pressure  loss  of  0.04  inch  of  water  in  the 
length  of  pipes. 


TABLE  FOR  ACETYLENE  GAS  PIPING. 
(From  the  Acetylene  Journal.") 


Cubic 
Feet. 

Distance  in 

Feet. 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

2 

.  ; 

\ 

\ 

1 

I 

, 

{ 

\ 

\ 

t 

j 

i 

• 

j 

; 

f 

j 

4 

~7 

4 

•j 

i 

\ 

* 

\ 

•• 

j 

r 

\ 

• 

| 

\ 

• 

i 

\ 

• 

\ 

4 

i 

6 

•j 

i 

1 

\ 

• 

\ 

' 

I 

\ 

• 

4 

\ 

8 

j 

; 

\ 

\ 

• 

j 

\ 

i 

| 

\ 

• 

| 

^ 

i 

10 

j 

? 

| 

j 

• 

| 

i 

| 

1 

i 

15 

i 

} 

i 

\ 

| 

i 

I 

1 

\ 

i 

20 

i 

1 

\ 

\ 

- 

j 

1 

\ 

i 

25 

\ 

J 

} 

1 

| 

I 

I 

\ 

30 

j 

. 

1 

.  i 

- 

^ 

I 

1 

i 

i 

35 

J 

I 

\ 

• 

I 

| 

1 

1 

1 

i 

i 

40 

j 

t 

1 

1 

I 

i 

i 

45 

\ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

i 

i 

50 

j 

j 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

i 

55 

; 

, 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

it 

H 

60 

i 

j 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Hi 

it 

it 

H 

65 

1 

1 

1 

1 

It 

H 

H 

H 

H 

70 

| 

1 

1 

1 

1 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

75 

| 

1 

1 

1 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

80 

1 

1 

1 

It 

it 

H 

H 

H 

it 

H 

85 

1 

1 

1 

It 

it 

H 

it 

H 

H 

H 

90 

1 

1 

H 

H 

it 

H 

H 

H 

if 

14 

100 

1 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

If 

H 

14 

14 

14 

110 

1 

It 

It 

H 

it 

if 

14 

14 

14 

14 

120 

H 

H 

H 

it 

1£ 

it 

14 

14 

14 

if 

if 

130 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

14 

H 

i! 

14 

if 

14 

140 

H 

H 

H 

H 

ij 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

2 

150 

ii 

H 

H 

: 

H       H 

M 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

2 

2 

i 

100 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


SIZES  OF  PIPING  FOR  ACETYLENE  LIGHTING. 
(Russell  C.  Miller,  Supt.,  Lakeville  Conn.  Gas  Company.) 

For  House  Piping. 

f  inch  pipe  for  up  to    45  lights  (1-foot  burners). 
\  inch  pipe  for  up  to    77  lights, 
f  inch  pipe  for  up  to  130  lights. 
1  inch  pipe  for  up  to  208  lights. 

For  Street  Mains,  for  village  lighting. 

1  inch  pipe  up  to    175  lights, 
1^  inch  pipe  up  to    377  lights. 
1|  inch  pipe  up  to    490  lights. 

2  inch  pipe  up  to    784  lights. 
1\  inch  pipe  up  to  1097  lights. 

3  inch  pipe  up  to  1645  lights. 

4  inch  pipe  up  to  2565  lights. 

A  prominent  acetylene  apparatus  manufacturer  published  a 
few  years  ago  the  following  pipe  table : 


TABLE. 

Showing  average  length  of  pipe  in  feet  used  for  a  given  number  of  0.5- 
cubic-foot-per-hour  burners  and  size  of  pipe.  Based  upon  an  even  distribution 
of  outlets. 


0.5  Cu. 

Ft.  per 

TT-.... 

8 

ize  of  P 

pe. 

—  i 

Hour 
Burners. 

$ 

i 

i 

i 

f 

I 

2 

~» 

2 

1 

20 

50 

100 

200 

5 

15 

40 

75 

175 

10 

10 

20 

50 

150 

20 

15 

40 

100 

250 

30 

10 

30 

75 

225 

40 

20 

50 

200 

500 

60 

10 

40 

175 

450 

750 

90 

30 

125 

400 

600 

1000 

120 

100 

300 

500 

900 

1000 

150 

75 

200 

400 

750 

900 

200 

50 

150 

300 

600 

750 

240 

125 

250 

500 

600 

300 

100 

200 

400 

500 

400 

150 

350 

475 

500 

300 

450 

600 

200 

400 

800 

350 

1000 

300 

Rules'-    Do  not  use  pipe  of  a  greater  length  than  given  in  the  table, 
even  for  a  smaller  number  of  burners. 


Piping  for  Acetylene  Gas  101 

Do  not  use  a  greater  number  of  burners  than  given  in  the  table,  even 
for  a  shorter  length  of  pipe. 

The  number  of  angles  in  any  system  of  piping  must  be  considered. 

If  there  are  many,  the  pipe  must  be  larger. 

The  arrangement  of  outlets  must  also  be  taken  into  account.  If 
unevenly  distributed  the  pipe  must  be  larger. 

RULES  AND  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PIPING  FOR 

ACETYLENE  GAS. 

(By  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  1903.) 
Piping. 

a.  Connections  from  generators  to  service  pipes  must  be  made  with 
right-and-left-thread  nipples,  or  long-thread  nipples  with  locknuts.     All 
forms  of  unions  are  prohibited. 

b.  Piping  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  arranged  so  that  any  moisture 
will  drain  back  to  the  generator.     If  low  points  occur  of  necessity  in  any 
piping,  they  must  be  drained  through  tees  into  drip  cups  permanently 
closed  with  screw  caps  or  plugs.     No  pet-cocks  shall  be  used. 

c.  A  valve  and  by-pass  connection  must  be  provided  from  the  service 
pipe  to  the  blow-off  for  removing  the  gas  from  the  holder  in  case  it  should 
be  necessary  to  do  so. 

d.  The  schedule  of  pipe  sizes  for  piping  from  generators  to  burners 
should  conform  to  that  commonly  used  for  ordinary  gas,  but  in  no  case 
must  the  feeders  be  smaller  than  three-eighths  inch. 

The  following  schedule  is  advocated : 

f  inch  pipe,    26  feet,  three  burners. 
^  inch  pipe,    30  feet,  six  burners. 
|  inch  pipe,    50  feet,  twenty  burners. 

1  inch  pipe,    70  feet,  thirty-five  burners. 
1^  inch  pipe,  100  feet,  sixty  burners. 

1£  inch  pipe,  150  feet,  one  hundred  burners. 

2  inch  pipe,  200  feet,  two  hundred  burners. 
1\  inch  pipe,  300  feet,  three  hundred  burners. 

3  inch  pipe,  450  feet,  four  hundred  and  fifty  burners. 
3£  inch  pipe,  500  feet,  six  hundred  burners. 

4  inch  pipe,  600  feet,  seven  hundred  and  fifty  burners. 

e.  (omitted)  .  .  . 

/.  Piping  must  be  thoroughly  tested  both  before  and  after  the  burners 
have  been  installed.  It  must  not  show  loss  in  excess  of  two  inches, 
within  twelve  hours,  when  subjected  to  a  pressure  equal  to  that  of  fifteen 
inches  of  mercury. 

g.  Piping  and  connections  must  be  installed  by  persons  experienced 
in  the  installation  of  acetylene  apparatus. 


CHAPTER  XLX 

THE   TESTING   OF    GAS   PIPES. 

IN  the  foregoing  chapters,  I  have  laid  much  stress  upon 
the  necessity  of  making  the  gas  piping  perfectly  gas-tight.  It 
is,  however,  desirable  to  have  some  positive  knowledge  that 
the  piping  is  absolutely  free  from  any  leaks,  and  such  certainty 
can  be  gained  only  by  submitting  the  pipe  system  to  a  pressure 
test. 

/-  In  all  new  buildings  the  test  is  applied  as  soon  as  the  gas 
vpiping  is  completed,  before  any  plastering  is  begun,  and  also 
before  any  gas  fixtures  are  connected,  i.e.,  while  all  gas  outlets 
are  still  tightly  capped. 

After  the  fixtures  are  hung  or  connected,  it  is  no  longer  possi- 
ble to  apply  the  same  test  which  is  used  for  the  piping  only, 
because  the  fixtures  and  the  gas  keys  are  rarely  constructed  so 
tight  as  to  stand  the  heavy  air  pressure  which  is  applied  to  the 
piping.  It  is  feasible,  however,  to  repeat  the  test  with  a  much 
lighter  pressure,  or  else  to  rely  upon  an  odor  test,  by  turning  on 
the  gas  at  the  meter. 

There  is  really  but  one  good  method  of  testing  new  gas  pipes 
in  buildings:  [it. consists  of  a  test  with  air  pressure.  The  appa- 
ratus required  for  such  a  test  comprises(an  air  pump,  a  pres- 
*sure  gauge,  preferably  a  mercury  glass  gauge,  some  ether,  and 
a  brush  and  soapy  water.  The  mercury  gauge  is  preferred,  be- 
cause it  is  much  more  sensitive  than  a  spring  gauge,  To  know 
the  pressure  with  which  one  deals,  it  is  but  necessary  to  remem- 
ber that  a  column  of  mercury  one  inch  high  in  the  gauge  tube  is 
equivalent  to  0.5  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch.  Thus,  a 
pressure  which  raises  the  mercury  twenty  inches  in  the  glass 
gauge  amounts  to  10  pounds. 

In  all  work  under  my  charge  or  done  under  my  specifications, 
I  require  a  test  with  a  pressure  equivalent  to  18  or  20  inches  of 
mercury.  Some  argue  that  such  a  heavy  pressure  is  uncalled 
for,  as  the  gas  piping  when  in  use  will  never  carry  anything 
like  such  pressure  (the  usual  pressure  of  gas  in  buildings  being 

102 


The  Testing  of  Gas  Pipes  103 

only  from  20  to  40  tenths  inches  of  water).  I  maintain  that  it 
is  feasible  so  to  put  the  gas  pipes  together  that  they  will,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  be  absolutely  gas-tight,  and  I  use  the  heavy 
pressure  merely  to  have  it  demonstrated  to  me  that  the  pipes 
are  tight.  From  practical  experience  I  find  that  there  is  no 
difficulty  whatever  about  making  a  gas-piping  system. stand 
this  heavy  pressure,  if  proper  care  is  exercised  in  using  good 
material,  in  cutting  the  threads,  and  in  screwing  the  pipes  and 
fittings  together.  "Leaks  rarely  occur  in  gas  piping  after  it  is 
put  in  properly,  i.e.,  without  the  cementing  up  of  sandholes  in 
fittings  or  the  cementing  of  leaky  joints"  (Galloway).  In  all 
cases,  however,  where  the  gas-fitter  has  used  red  or  white  lead 
in  his  joints  it  is  well  not  to  apply  the  test  until  the  lead  has 
thoroughly  set  or  become  hard. 

A  few  words  about  the  way  in  which  the  test  is  carried  out. 
(  The  testing  apparatus  is  connected  to  any  convenient  gas  out- 
let, preferably  to  a  side  outlet,  so  placed  that  the  mercury 

1  gauge  will  stand  at  a  convenient  height  for  observing  the  same. 

\  Before  applying  the  test,  the  gas-fitter  should  make  sure  that  all 

outlets  are  quite  tightly  capped,  so  that  there  may  not  be  any 

escape  of  air  at  the  outlets. 

,       After  forcing  air  into  the  pipes  and  pumping  up  the  pressure 

/    so  that  the  gauge  will  indicate  from  18  to  20  inches  of  mercury, 

\   the  pumping  is  stopped,  and  the  valve  on  the  testing  apparatus 
is  tightly  closed. 

The  time  is  noted  when  the  watching  of  the  gauge  begins.  A 
few  minutes'  observation  of  the  gauge  will  quickly  tell  whether 
there  are  leaks.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  require  the  mercury 
in  the  gauge  to  stand  for  one  or  more  hours  without  changing 
its  position,  for  changes  both  in  temperature  and  in  barometric 

I     pressure  might  occur  during  that  time,  which  would  affect  the 

V,  indications  of  the  gauge. 

If  the  mercury  stands  firm  and  rigid  at  the  same  height 
(which  can  be  conveniently  marked  by  a  strip  of  paper  or  by  a 
ring  on  the  gauge  glass),  and  if  the  top  of  the  mercury,  which 
shows  slightly  rounded,  does  not  flatten  out,  the  piping  is  tight. 
If  the  mercury  drops,  there  must  be  some  leaks.  Should  it 
drop  very  rapidly,  the  leak  is  large,  and  is  usually  more  easily 
found.  If  it  drops  slowly,  ihejeakds-small  and  not  so  easy  to 
find,  though  the  rate  of  fall  will  necessarily  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  extent  of  the  piping  under  test.  The  watching  of  the 


104  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

0  gauge  should  be  continued  for  about  15  minutes.  If  at  the  end 
of  this  period  of  time  the  gauge  still  indicates  at  the  same 
height,  the  system  may  be  passed  as  tight. 

If  the  mercury  drops,  one  should  note  the  rate  of  fall  during 
the  period  mentioned  before,  for  the  rate  of  fall,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  cubic  contents  of  the  piping  under  test,  indi- 
cates the  extent  of  the  leak.  If  the  fall  is  very  rapid,  it  is 
possible  that  the  gas-fitter  forgot  to  close  some  gas  outlet,  or 
there  may  be  a  split  pipe,  or  a  nipple  may  have  been  omitted. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  leaks  are  found.     One  is  to 

0  put  ether  into  the  testing  apparatus,  to  force  it  into  the  pipes, 

and  to  trace  the  leak  by  the  odor  of  escaping  ether.     This,  in 

a  new  unenclosed  building,  is  sometimes  a  difficult  matter.     It 

b  is  much  better  to  apply  soapsuds  by  means  of  a  brush  to  the 

fittings  and  joints  suspected  of  being  leaky;    wherever  there  is 

a  leak,  the  escaping  air  will  cause  soap  bubbles  to  form,  and 

will  in  this  way  show  its  location. 

When  the  cause  of  the  leak  is  determined,  the  rejmedy  should 
be  applied  ;vfittings_wittsandholes,  and  split  pipes  or  pipes  with 
defective  seams  should  bfTremoved  and  replaced  by  perfect 
work.  Leaky  screw  joints  should  be  tightened  up  where  it  is 
possible  to  do  so.  After  this  is  done,  the  test  should  be  again 
applied  and  the  watching  of  the  gauge  should  be  continued. 

Sometimes  one  finds  the  advice  given  to  test  a  gas-pipe 
system  by  filling  the  pipes  with  water  under  pressure,  much  in 
the  manner  of  the  plumbing  test  for  the  rough  work.  I  do  not 
recommend  the  practice,  for  it  leads  to  annoying  rusting  up  of 
the  gas  pipes;  the  water  is  also  difficult  to  remove  from  the 
drop  pipes  after  a  test. 

Some  writers  wrongly  advise  the  search  for  leaks  with  a 
match,  a  candle,  or  an  open  flame  of  any  kind.  This  is  danger- 
ous when  ether  has  been  applied  to  the  pipes;  it  is  folly  in 
cases  when  escapes  of  gas  are  noticed  in  a  pipe  system  after 
the  meter  has  been  connected  and  the  gas  turned  on.  Other 
writers  on  the  subject  qualify  their  advice  by  stating  that 
"  judgment  should  be  used  when  hunting  for  a  leak  with  a 
lighted  candle."  My  advice  is  to  let  well  enough  alone,  and 
£>  never  to  use  a  lighted  candle  for  finding  gas  leaks. 

Where  the  pressure  of  air  used  in  testing  is  heavy,  the  hiss- 
ing sound  of  the  escaping  air  frequently  indicates  the  place 
where  the  leak  is. 


The  Testing  of  Gas  Pipes  105 

If  it  is  at  a  joint,  or  if  a  fitting  is  found  to  have  a  sandhole,  a 
common  practice  is  to  use  gas-fitters'  cement  to  close  up  the 
leak,  but  this  cannot  meet  approval.  It  is,  in  fact,  bad  advice, 
for  cement  should  not  be  used  at  all  in  a  gas-pipe  system,  for 
reasons  given  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

Where  the  building  is  large,  or  has  a  great  many  stories,  it 
is  safer  and  easier  to  test  the  gas  piping  in  sections,  or  by  floors, 
and  to  repeat  the  test  for  the  entire  building  only  after  having 
made  sure  that  the  sections  are  tight. 

In  testing  old  work,  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  find  leaks^ 
because  a  good  part  of  the  piping  is  hidden  or  covered  up,  ^In 
such  a  case*  it  is  best  to  test  first  the  exposed  piping  wherever 
practicable,  and  after  making  sure  that  it  is  tight,  to  test  the 
portions  which  are  permanently  out  of  sight. 

The  Joslin  indicator,  manufactured  in  England,  by  William 
Sugg  &  Co.,  if  fixed  on  the  house  side  of  the  gas  meter,  on  a  by- 
pass, is  a  good  telltale  for  indicating  small  leaks.  A  similar 
appliance  is  made  by  Muchall  in  Germany, 
l/  In  occupied  houses  the  fact  that  there  are  gas  leaks  may 
sometimes  be  discovered  by  putting  the  ear  to  the  gas  meters, 
all  burners  being  of  course  turned  off.  A  noise  in  the  gas  meter 
indicates  a  movement  of  the  recording  works  inside  of  the 
meter,  and  consequently  a  passage  of  gas  —  in  other  words, 
leaks  either  in  pipes,  fittings  or  fixtures. 

When  the  gas  is  turned  on  at  the  meter,  it  is  best  to  use  the 
nose  in  hunting  for  leaks.  Some  books  on  gas-fitting  state  that 
leaks  may  be  found  by  " using  a  lighted  taper  in  the  search," 
but  although  they  add  that  "  great  care  must  be  exercised  to 
guard  against  setting  the  building  on  fire,"  I  am  strongly 
opposed  to  such  practice.  At  the  point  where  the  gas  leaks,  the 
open  flame  may  ignite  the  gas,  and  cause  it  to  burn,  perhaps, 
with  a  very  small  bluish  flame,  which  is  either  scarcely  per- 
ceptible or  which  may  be  out  of  sight.  The  flame  may  finally 
set  some  woodwork  on  fire,  particularly  if  the  leak  is  in  a  closely 
confined  place,  in  partitions  or  between  floors.  In  other  cases 
the  mixture  of  gas  and  air  may  be  such  as  to  become  explosive, 
and  gas  explosions  may  result.  (See  "  Hints  to  Gas  Consumers," 
Chapter  XXI.) 

When  one  is  satisfied  that  the  gas-pipe  system  is  tight,  it  is  a 
good  practice  to  have  some  of  the  caps  on  the  outlets  loosened 
on  each  of  the  floors,  while  the  pressure  is  still  kept  on  the 


106  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

pipes.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  cap  loosened  only 
sufficiently  to  indicate  by  the  falling  of  the  mercury  in  the 
gauge  that  the  particular  section  of  piping,  which  feeds  the 
gas  outlet  selected,  has  been  under  test.  The  experiment  also 
gives  useful  indications  that  the  piping  is  not  clogged  up. 

Where  the  gas  fixtures  are  hung  by  parties  other  than  the 
man  who  did.  the  piping,  it  is  a  good  plan  for  the  gas-fitter  to 
retest  the  pipes  just  before  the  fixtures  are  connected.  If  they 
are  shown  by  the  test  to  be  tight,  it  necessarily  follows  that 
any  subsequent  gas  leaks  must  be  at  or  in  the  gas  fixtures,  and 
they  will  be  found  either  at  the  gas  keys,  or  the  swing  joints  of 
folding  brackets,  or  at  the  joint  where  the  fixture  is  hung. 
0  In  some  cities  in  Europe,  the  tightness  of  a  gas-pipe  system 
is  tested  with  the  aid  of  a  small  gas-holder  of  1  to  2  cubic  feet 
contents,  which  can  be  loaded  with  weights  up  to  a  pressure  of 
3  pounds  or  6  inches  mercury.  The  gas-holder  has  a  scale 
divided  to  one  three-hundredths  .of  a  cubic  foot,  and  an  escape 
of  one  six-hundredth  to  one  nine-hundredth  cubic  foot  can  be 
readily  measured.  In  applying  the  test,  the  gas-holder  is  con- 
nected with  the  pipes  to  be  tested,  and  filled  wit'h  either  air 
or  illuminating  gas.  The  sinking  of  the  gas-holder,  when  the 
apparatus  is  connected  with  the  gas  pipes,  indicates  leaks,  which 
are  searched  for  as  described  above.  In  England,  use  is  often 
made  of  " tell-tale  meters,"  with  which  the  smallest  leak  can 
be  detected  at  the  instrument.  It  is  usual  in  this  case  to  divide 
the  piping  in  smaller  sections.  This  test  may  be  more  accurate 
and  scientific,  but  it  is  neither  as  simple  nor  as  rapid  as  the 
test  usually  applied  by  American  gas-fitters. 

It  is  difficult  to  fix  upon  a  limit  for  allowable  small  leaks 
(no  system  of  gas  pipes  being  really  absolutely  gas-tight). 
When  the  gas-holder  test  is  used,  it  is  sometimes  ruled  that  the 
hourly  loss  by  leakage  should  not  exceed  one-thirtieth  to  one- 
fifteenth  cubic  foot  per  three  hundred  lineal  feet  of  pipe. 

The  following  remarks,  contributed  by  a  practical  gas-fitter 
to  the  columns  of  The  Metal  Worker  are  to  the  point : 

"If  the  mercury  stands  at  a  given  height  for  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes  with  a  round  bead  on  top,  and  does  this 
repeatedly,  there  is  no  leak  that  any  man  can  find  or  detect 
with  any  appliance  that  I  have  knowledge  of.  I  often  have  had 
my  men  report  to  me  that  the  mercury,  after  standing  some 
time,  will  rise  if  the  atmosphere  became  warmer  while  they  were 


The  Testing  of  Gas  Pipes  107 

testing.  Just  so  will  it  fall  toward  evening  if  it  is  pumped  up 
during  the  afternoon  or  while  the  atmosphere  is  warm,  which 
goes  to  show  that  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  air  in  the 
pipe  affects  the  mercury. 

"I  once  had  a  leak  in  a  small  gas  job  that  two  men  worked 
faithfully  for  ten  hours  to  find.  The  mercury  would  fall  about 
&  inch  in  fifteen  minutes,  showing  that  there  was  a  very  small 
leak.  We  could  detect  a  slight  smell  of  ether  on  a  piece  of 
f-inch  pipe,  18  inches  long.  We  lathered  it,  but  could  get  no 
bubble.  I  turned  the  gas  on  it,  but  found  that  it  would  not 
burn  through  the  hole.  I  had  the  pipe  removed  and  a  sound 
one  put  in.  This  did  the  work  effectually,  curing  the  leak  and 
proving  that  a  very  slight  leak  will  show  on  a  mercury  column 
in  a  short  time.  I  afterward  tested  the  defective  piece  of  pipe, 
and  under  forty  pounds  water  pressure  it  would  sweat  a  drop 
about  once  a  minute  through  a  hole  that  you  could  not  see." 
!  It  is  a  good  plan,  in  all  large  buildings,  particularly  in  facto- 
ries, mercantile  buildings,  churches,  theaters,  and  hospitals  to 
have  the  gas  pipes  tested  periodically,  and  at  least  once  a  year. 
To  do  this  thoroughly,  it  is  advisable  to  take  off  all  the  gas 
fixtures  and  to  cap  the  outletsJ  Where  one  does  not  care  to 
go  to  this  trouble,  it  is  possibl^  to  find  out  if  there  are  leaks 
by  watching  closely  the  small  index  of  the  gas  meter.  (See 
Chapter  XVII.)  A  great  many  small  leaks  usually  exist  at 
the  fixture  joints,  at  the  gas  keys,  at  the  stuffing-box  joints  of 
chandeliers,  and  at  the  points  where  the  lava  tips  are  inserted 
in  the  burners.  Leaky  gas  keys  should  be  carefully  reground, 
but,  for  the  time  being,  a  leak  at  a  gas  key  may  be  stopped  by 
applying  a  mixture  of  grease  and  beeswax. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GAS-LIGHT  ILLUMINATION. 

THE  chief  means  for  obtaining  a  good  and  satisfactory  illumi- 
nation by  gas-light  should  be  briefly  mentioned. 

The  term  "gas  lighting,"  or  gas-light  illumination,  signifies 
the  artificial  illumination  of  interiors,  and  of  streets,  parks,  and 
public  squares,  by  means  of  gas  flames  or  gas  jets.  In  the 
houses,  gas  lighting  is  accomplished  by  means  of  more  or  less 
ornamental  wall  brackets  and  chandeliers,  adapted  for  burning 
illuminating  gas  in  burners  or  tips,  arranged  singly  or  in  clusters. 
It  is  not  intended  to  discuss  in  this  book  the  illumination  of 
streets  and  squares. 

It  will  be  assumed:  (a)  That  the  gas  supplied  to  the  con- 
sumer is  properly  purified  at  the  gas  works,  and  that  in  quality 
it  is  of  the  requisite  and  sufficient  candlepower. 

(6)  That  the  gas  piping  in  the  building  has  been  done  in 
a  first-class  manner,  and  in  accordance  with  the  rules  given 
in  the  preceding  chapters;  that  pipes  and  fittings  of  proper 
materials  and  of  ample  size  have  been  used;  that  these  pipes 
and  fittings  have  been  put  together  in  a  workmanlike  manner 
and  are  tightly  jointed;  that  the  distributing  pipes  have  been 
properly  run,  with  sufficient  grade  and  with  good  fastenings 
and  supports ;  that  all  gas  outlets  have  been  securely  strapped ; 
and  that  the  piping  has  stood  a  severe  pressure  test  and  has 
no  leaks  or  imperfections. 

(c)  That  the  gas  company  has  run  a  service  of  ample  size 
into  the  premises,  and  has  set  a  gas  meter  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  supply  all  burners  likely  to  be  in  use  at  one  time. 

Under  such  conditions,  the  factors  upon  which  the  illumina- 
tion depends  are  the  gas  burners,  the  pressure  regulators,  the 
globes  and  globe  holders,  and  the  gas  fixtures. 

The  essential  preliminary  steps  which  gas  consumers  who 
desire  a  good  illumination  should  take,  are: 

(1)  To  select  and  use  the  best  quality  of  gas  burners,  for 
these  will  not  only  give  a  better  light,  but  they  will  burn  less 

108 


Gas- Light  Illumination  109 

gas  in  proportion  to  the  candlepower  developed  than  poor 
burners,  or,  to  put  it  in  other  words,  they  will  produce  a 
higher  candlepower  per  unit  of  gas  consumed. 

(2)  To  regulate  the  pressure  with  which  the  gas  issues  at  the 
burner,  which  may  be  accomplished  either  by  the  use  of  gas- 
pressure  regulators  on  the  main  house  pipes  for  gas,  or  by  using 
volumetric  or  governor  burners  at  the  gas  fixtures. 

(3)  To  regulate  the  air  supply  to  the  flame,  which  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  suitably  shaped  and  suitably  placed  gas 
globes,  and  in  the  case  of  Argand  burners,  by  the  use  of  well- 
proportioned  glass  chimneys. 

(4)  By  selecting  well-designed  and  well-constructed  gas  fix- 
tures and  judiciously  placing  the  same  in  the  apartments  to  be 
lighted. 

According  to  an  elaborate  report,  made  by  the  London  Gas 
Referees,  in  1870,  a  serious  waste  of  gas  occurs,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  bad  burners  in  general  use.  Consumers  may, 
by  using  good  instead  of  poor  burners,  obtain  from  thirty  to 
fifty  per  cent  more  light  without  any  increase  in  the  gas  bills. 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  gas  may  be  used  wastefully  or 
economically,  this  depending  largely  on  the  selection  of  the 
burners.  Burners  suitable  for  ordinary  coal  gas  are  not  adapted 
for  gas  of  high  candlepower,  and  vice  versa.  Unfortunately, 
the  proper  methods  of  burning  gas  are  little  understood,  not  so 
much  owing  to  want  of  popular  information  on  the  subject  as 
on  account  of  the  general  indifference  of  the  gas-consuming 
public  as  well  as  of  the  gas  companies. 

Gas  consumers  are,  as  a  rule,  very  slow  in  the  adoption  of 
progressive  methods  or  appliances  in  domestic  gas  lighting,  and 
the  gas  companies,  with  a  few  commendable  exceptions,  have 
not  in  the  past  made  the  slightest  efforts  in  the  interest  of  the 
consumers,  by  explaining  in  a  lucid  manner  the  problem  of  how 
to  burn  gas  economically,  and  how  a  maximum  efficiency  of 
light,  combined  with  perfect  and  complete  combustion,  may  be 
obtained  from  the  burning  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gas. 

Much  remains  to  be  accomplished  in  this  direction;  many 
widely  existing  fallacies  regarding  gas  lighting  have  to  be  fought 
and  removed,  and  in  their  place  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  gas  illumination  should  be  disseminated.  In  by 
far  too  many  cases,  the  existing  conditions,  such  as  too  small 
pipes,  meters  of  insufficient  capacity,  excess  of  pressure,  bad 


110  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

burners,  ill-shaped  globes,  cumbersome  globe  holders,  and 
defective  gas  fixtures  preclude  any  chances  of  obtaining  a  suc- 
cessful illumination. 

I  cannot  here  go  into  a  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the 
gas  flame  or  into  the  theory  of  combustion,  and  will  simply  state 
as  a  general  axiom  that  gas  should  be  burnt  at  a  low  pressure. 
The  most  favorable  pressure  varies  slightly  with  the  quality, 
candlepower  and  specific  gravity  of  the  manufactured  gas,  but 
may  be  taken  on  an  average  as  five-tenths  of  an  inch  of  water 
pressure  at  the  burner.  An  excessive  high  pressure  of  gas  has 
a  tendency  to  reduce  the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  flame, 
and  it  also  causes  the  roaring  or  singing  of  flames,  the  flickering 
of  the  lights,  the  cracking  of  glass  globes  and  a  waste  of  gas. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pressure  is  too  low,  the  flame  is  apt 
to  smoke,  becomes  dull  and  reddish  in  appearance,  and  vitiates 
the  air. 

The  art  of  illumination  is  practically  a  new  science,  and  it  is 
only  recently  that  professional  men  have  taken  up  the  subject 
from  a  scientific  as  well  as  practical  point  of  view.  A  large 
yet  untrodden  field  is  open  to  the  new  profession  of  the 
"  illuminating  engineer."  Those  in  search  of  sound  information 
on  the  subject  would  do  well  to  obtain  a  copy  of  an  excellent 
treatise,  recently  published,  entitled  "Practical  Illumination,"* 
by  Cravath  and  Lansingh,  both  authors  being  men  who  have 
devoted  years  of  study  and  investigation  to  the  subject.  The 
monthly  issues  of  a  new  magazine,  called  Illuminating  Engi- 
neer, also  contain  important  information. 

*  Practical  Illumination,  by  Cravath  and  Lansingh.  McGraw  Publishing 
Company,  1907.  Price  $3.00. 

See  also  the  following  six  instructive  pamphlets,  issued  by  the  Holo- 
phane  Glass  Company  of  New  York  City: 

Light  vs.  Illumination. 

The  Lighting  of  the  House. 

The  Lighting  of  Large  Buildings,  Offices  and  Stores. 

The  Lighting  of  Theaters  and  Public  Halls. 

The  Lighting  of  Churches,  Schools,  Libraries,  and  Hospitals. 

The  Lighting  of  Hotels  and  Clubhouses. 

See  also  a  pamphlet,  issued  by  the  Nernst  Lamp  Company,  of  Pitts- 
burg,  in  1907,  entitled  The  Art  of  Lighting,  by  Lux 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

GAS   BURNERS. 

A  GAS  BURNER  may  be  defined  as  the  point  at  which  illumi- 
nating gas  issues  from  the  service  pipe  to  be  ignited  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  light  (or  in  some  cases  heat).  A  gas  burner 
generally  consists  of  a  metal,  lava,  or  steatite  tip  attached  to 
the  gas  fixture,  which  by  its  size  or  opening  regulates  to  some 
extent  the  size  of  the  flame  and  the  amount  of  the  gas  con- 
sumed. The  common  gas  burners  for  lighting  are  generally 
composed  of  two  parts,  the  body  and  the  tip  of  the  burner. 

Before  mentioning  in  detail  the  different  kinds  of  gas  burners 
in  common  use,  a  few  words  should  be  said  about  the  nature 
and  the  chemical  process  involved  in  what  is  known  as  the 
4 'luminous  flame." 

The  process  does  not  vary  in  principle  whether  the  illuminant 
burned  be  solid  (like  the  tallow,  wax,  paraffine,  or  other  candles), 
or  liquid  (such  as  colza  oil  and  kerosene  burnt  in  lamps),  or 
gaseous  (coal  or  water  gas).  All  gas  contains  hydrogen  and 
carbon.  In  all  illuminants  the  heat  of  the  flame  eliminates 
carbon;  the  hydrogen  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
creating  a  very  high  temperature,  which  causes  the  carbon 
particles  to  become  incandescent.  The  carbon  is  finally  con- 
sumed in  the  flame,  and  carbon  dioxide,  some  carbon  monoxide, 
and  watery  vapor  are  formed. 

While  in  candle  and  oil-lamp  illumination  the  gas  is  only 
generated  during  combustion,  it  is  in  the  case  of  gas  illumina- 
tion already  prepared  at  the  gas  works  and  therefore  issues  at 
the  burner  ready  to  be  lit. 

Every  luminous  flame  has  three  distinct  parts  or  zones, 
namely :  an  inner  zone,  where  there  is  no  combustion ;  a  middle 
or  intermediate  zone,  in  which  partial  combustion  takes  place, 
and  which  is  the  luminous  or  light-giving  zone,  as  it  contains 
the  carbon  particles  raised  to  incandescence;  and  finally  an 
outer  zone  where  complete  combustion  takes  place,  and  which 
is  non-luminous. 

ill 


112  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

The  luminosity  of  a  flame,  of  whatever  nature,  depends, 
therefore,  first,  upon  the  amount  of  carbon  or  light-giving  sub- 
stance contained  in  the  flame,  and,  second,  upon  the  proper, 
sufficient,  but  not  excessive  air  supply  to  the  flame. 

Should  there  be  too  much  air  supply,  the  intensity  of  the 
flame  will  be  reduced.  The  bluish  or  non-luminous  flame  of 
the  Bunsen  burner  is  due  to  the  excess  of  air  furnished  to  the 
flame.  For  this  reason,  gas  should  not  issue  at  a  burner  under 
too  high  a  pressure,  for  this  causes  too  much  air  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  flame.  It  is  an  axiom,  which  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  in  the  flat-flame  and  Argand  burners  gas  should 
be  burned  under  a  low  pressure. 

In  determining  upon  the  kind  and  size  of  burners  to  use,  one 
should  take  into  consideration  not  only  the  amount  of  light,  i.e., 
the  candlepower  desired,  but  also  the  gas  pressure  at  the  burner 
orifice  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas,  or  its  proportion  of 
hydrocarbons. 

The  lighter  the  gas  is,  the  more  volume  will  flow  out  at  a 
burner.  Those  gases  which  are  rich  in  hydrocarbons  have  the 
smallest  specific  gravity  but  the  highest  illuminating  power, 
hence  require  small  burner  openings;  heavy  gas,  on  the  other 
hand,  or  gas  which  contains  a  lesser  amount  of  hydrocarbons, 
requires  to  be  burned  in  larger  burners. 

Early  in  the  history  of  gas  lighting  we  find  the  energies  of 
able  inventors  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  original  and 
crude  devices  which  had  served  as  gas  burners,  but  the  correct 
principles,  according  to  which  a  perfect  gas  flame  was  to  be 
produced,  were  not  then  known.  It  is  both  interesting  and 
instructive  to  follow  the  gradual  developments  of  the  better 
class  of  burners.  Nearly  a  century  after  the  invention  of  gas 
lighting  a  fresh  impetus  was  given  to  the  gas-burner  industry 
by  the  introduction  of  the  electric  lamp.  This  compelled  gas 
companies  to  devote  attention  to  the  available  better  gas  ap- 
pliances for  street  illumination,  and  also  caused  consumers  to 
make  inquiries  about  the  details  of  properly  constructed  gas 
burners  for  interior  lighting.  The  London  Gas  Referees  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  by  the  use  of  good  burners  50  per  cent 
more  light  without  increased  gas  bills  could  be  obtained.  At 
the  present  day,  the  simplest  as  well  as  the  most  scientifically 
and  accurately  constructed  gas  burners  are  available,  and  new 
improvements  are  constantly  being  made. 


Gas  Burners  113 

Broadly  speaking,  we  may  distinguish  between  the  following 
types  of  gas  burners,  viz. : 

(a)  Single-jet  burners. 

(b)  Flat-flame  burners:     (1)  Bat's  wing.     (2)  Fish-tail. 

(c)  Round-flame  or  Argand  burners. 

(d)  Multiple  flat-flame  burners. 

(e)  Regenerative  burners. 

(/)  Incandescent  burners:     (1)  Upright.     (2)  Inverted. 

Of  all  gas  burners,  the  single-jet  burner  is  the  simplest,  oldest, 
and  crudest  device,  consisting  of  a  plain  body  and  1^ip,  generally 
combined,  having  only  one  small,  round  aperture  for  gas.  These 
burners  were  used  only  to  a  limited  extent,  where  a  very  small 
flame  was  required,  and  hence  they  may  be  dismissed  with 
these  few  words. 

The  second  and  third  types  of  burners,  viz.:  the  flat-flame 
and  the  round-flame  burners,  are  those  with  which  we  were 
chiefly  concerned  in  dwelling-house  illumination  until  the  inven- 
tion of  the  incandescent  gas-burners  brought  about  great  and 
far-reaching  changes.  Of  the  two  types  named,  the  bulk  of 
burners  used  belong  to  the  flat-flame  type. 

Ah1  flat-flame  burners,  as  the  name  implies,  spread  their 
flame  in  a  thin,  broad  sheet.  It  is  usual  to  distinguish  two 
kinds  of/  flat-flame  burners,  viz.:  the  bat's-wing  or  slit-union 
burner,  and  the  union-jet  or  fish-tail  burner. 

The  bat's-wing  burner  has  a  hemispherical  tip,  with  a  narrow 
vertical  slit,  from  which  the  gas  issues  in  a  thin  and  broad 
sheet,  whereas  the  union-jet,  originally  invented  by  James 
Milne,  of  Edinburgh,  consists  of  a  flat  and  sometimes  of  a  slightly 
depressed  or  concave  tip,  with  two  small  holes  drilled  under 
a  certain  angle  to  each  other,  from  which  two  jets  of  equal  size 
issue,  and  by  impinging  upon  one  another  produce  a  flat  flame. 

Flat-flame  burners  do  not  require  the  use  of  a  chimney  to 
prevent  the  smoking  of  the  flame,  but  the  gas  flame  is  usually 
sheltered  against  draft  by  surrounding  it  with  a  glass  globe, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  imitation  candle  burners  which,  how- 
ever well  they  may  look  on  gas  chandeliers  do  not  give  a  good 
illumination  as  they  usually  have  very  small  tips,  and  also 
because  they  are  apt  to  flicker. 

As  originally  constructed,  the  two  burners  produced  flames 
widely  differing  in  character,  the  bat's-wing  burner  giving  a 


114  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

flame  of  great  width  and  little  height,  while  the  fish-tail  burner 
produced  a  flame  considerably  narrower  and  longer.  While 
the  bat's-wing  burner  is  better  adapted  for  burning  heavy  gas, 
the  fish-tail  burner  should  be  selected  for  gases  rich  in  hydro- 
carbons. 

On  account  of  its  great  width,  the  flame  of  an  ordinary  bat's- 
wing  burner  is  easily  affected  by  even  slight  currents  of  air, 
which  cause  the  flame  to  smoke,  and  the  protection  which  a 
glass  globe  affords  to  the  flame  cannot  be  so  readily  applied  to 
the  common  bat's-wing  burner,  because  the  slightest  lateral  devi- 
ation of  the  broad  flame  often  causes  the  cracking  of  a  glass 
globe.  This  is  one  reason  why  ordinary  union-jet  burners  are 
so  commonly  used  on  gas  fixtures  with  glass  globes,  although  the 
bat's-wing  burner  is  slightly  preferable,  as  regards  the  develop- 
ment of  light. 

An  early  step  in  the  improvement  of  flat-flame  burners  con- 
sisted in  simple  devices,  intended  to  reduce  the  velocity  with 
which  gas  issues  at  the  burner  orifice  owing  to  the  gas  pressure, 
experiments  having  established  the  fact  that  a  greater  degree 
of  illumination  could  be  obtained  by  burning  gas  at  a  low  pres- 
sure. These  devices  consisted  in  introducing  some  mechanical 
obstruction,  such  as  wire  gauze,  cotton,  wool,  or  a  mica  disk, 
or  a  regulating  screw,  into  the  body  of  the  burner.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  coal  gas  is  not  always  well  purified,  all  devices 
which  serve  to  constrict  the  lower  part  of  the  burner  are  very 
liable  to  stop  up  with  tarry  matters  carried  in  suspension  in 
the  gas,  which  become  condensed  and  are  deposited  in  the  wire 
gauze  or  in  the  wool.  After  some  time,  such  "check  burners," 
as  they  are  sometimes  called,  generally  become  unfit  for  use,  or 
at  least  produce  a  very  ragged  and  uneven  flame,  owing  to  the 
material  in  the  body  of  the  burner  becoming  more  obstructed 
in  some  parts  than  in  others. 

The  first  valuable  improvement  in  gas  burners  consisted  in 
the  selection  of  a  more  suitable  material  for  the  tip  or  head  of 
the  burner.  The  old  burners  were  usually  made  entirely  in 
one  piece,  either  of  iron  or  of  brass.  Movable  tips  were  intro- 
duced later  on,  and  were  inserted  in  the  metal  body  of  the 
burner,  but  at  first  these  tips  were  still  made  of  iron.  This 
material  is  objectionable  for  two  reasons,  viz. :  first,  the  burner 
orifices  in  union-jet  and  in  bat's-wing  burners  become  rapidly 
choked  by  the  corrosion  of  the  metal.  Such  obstructions  by 


Gas  Burners  115 

rust  may,  it  is  true,'  be  removed  from  time  to  time  with  burner 
cleaners,  sold  in  hardware  stores  or  obtainable  from  the  gas 
companies,  those  for  union-jet  burners  being  in  shape  of  a  small 
awl,  while  those  for  slit  burners  consist  of  thin  strips  of  sheet 
brass  or  steel,  fastened  to  a  suitable  handle.  The  average 
householder  rarely  bothers  himself  with  such  matters;  but 
even  where  these  burner  cleaners  are  used,  the  inevitable  result 
of  their  too  frequent  or  careless  use  will  be  that  the  burners 
quickly  become  injured  or  destroyed.  The  nickel  plating  of 
the  iron  burner  tips  obviates  to  some  extent  the  corrosion  of 
the  burner  orifice,  and  quite  recently  a  non-corrosive  aluminum 
gas  tip  has  been  put  on  the  market,  for  which  the  advantage  is 
claimed  that  it  does  not  chip  or  crack,  as  lava  tips  sometimes  do. 

A  second  and  more  important  objection  against  brass  or  iron 
burner  tips  is  that  metal,  being  a  good  conductor,  abstracts 
much  heat  from  the  burner  tip,  and  thereby  reduces  the  tem- 
perature of  the  flame,  causing  some  loss  in  the  degree  of  illumi- 
nation. 

Therefore,  a  great  step  forward  was  made  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  non-metallic,  non-corrosive,  and  non-conducting  sub- 
stances for  burner  tips.  The  material  most  commonly  used  is 
lava,  but  this  is  brittle  and  cracks  easily,  and  various  gas-burner 
manufacturers  employ  other  materials,  such  as  porcelain,  or 
steatite  (a  sort  of  soapstone  of  very  fine  grain,  which  burned  in 
a  kiln  becomes  hard  and  incorrosive,  and  is  easily  polished)  or 
"adamas,"  a  compound  artificial  material  of  a  mixture  of 
various  earths  or  minerals,  or  some  sort  of  " enamel."  Sugg's 
and  Bronner's  burners  have  steatite,  Bray's  burners  enamel, 
and  Leoni's  burners  adamas  tips;  and  all  modern  improved 
flat-flame  and  round-flame  burners  have  tips  made  of  one  or 
the  other  of  these  materials,  which  are  practically  everlasting 
and  not  susceptible  of  oxidation. 

Further  improvements  made  relate  to  the  shape  of  the  tip    0 
and  of  the  body  of  the  burner.     In  some  gas  burners,  for  in- 
stance, the  body  is  suitably  enlarged  to  form  a  sort  of  expansion 
chamber  wherein  the  velocity  of  the  gas,  as  it  issues  from  the 
pipe,  is,  to  some  extent,  checked. 

The  bat's-wing  burner  was  improved  by  making  the  interior 
of  the  top  of  the  burner  hollow.  The  slit  thereby  becomes  of 
equal  depth  throughout.  Sugg  also  improved  the  bat's-wing 
burner  by  cutting  the  slit  with  a  circular  saw,  which  has  a 


116  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

favorable  effect  upon  the  shape  of  the  flame.  The  advantage 
is  thereby  gained  that  gas  issues  more  uniformly  at  all  points 
of  the  tip,  and  the  shape  of  the  flame  thus  becomes  improved, 
i.e.,  it  is  less  broad  and  somewhat  taller. 

A  further  improvement  of  the  bat's-wing  burner  was  made 
by  William  Sugg,  who  applied  a  rim-like  projection  to  the  out- 
side of  the  burner  below  the  slit,  a  so-called  " table-top,"  the 
object  of  which  was  to  check  the  rush  of  the  outer  air  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  flame.  Thus  the  flame  is  better 
protected  from  drafts,  the  shape  of  the  flame  is  more  evenly 
preserved,  and  all  smoking  is  prevented. 

Manufacturers  of  union-jet  burners,  in  turn,  were  not  slow 
in  applying  improvements  to  their  type  of  burner.  Some 
introduced  into  the  body  of  the  burner  layers  of  muslin  to 
check  the  flow  of  gas,  others  inserted  plugs  or  washers  of  enamel, 
perforated  with  small  apertures  for  the  passage  of  gas.  These 
apertures  can  be  adjusted  to  various  pressures,  and  the  ultimate 
object  in  view  is  to  cause  the  gas  to  issue  at  the  burner  tip  at 
the  lowest  pressure  consistent  with  proper  illumination.  The 
result  is  that  the  height  of  the  gas  flame,  which  in  the  common 
fish-tail  or  union-jet  burner  is  excessive,  becomes  considerably 
reduced  and  the  roaring  and  flickering  of  the  light  is  prevented. 
A  similar  result  was  obtained  by  making  the  burner  top  slightly 
hollow,  and  the  angle  at  which  the  two  streams  of  gas  meet 
more  obtuse. 

By  all  these  improvements,  the  two  at  first  quite  different 
flames  of  the  bat's-wing  or  slit  burner,  and  of  the  union- jet  or 
fish-tail  burner,  have  been  modified  and  gradually  altered  so 
much  that  in  their  modern  and  most  improved  form  the  shapes 
of  the  flames  of  the  two  types  are  practically  identical. 

Among  the  best  improved  flat-flame  burners  are  those  of 
Broenner,  Leoni,  Sugg,  Bray  and  Silber.  The  Sugg  improved 
hollow-top  steatite  slit  burner,  the  Sugg  circular-slit  table-top 
steatite  burner,  the  Bray  enamel  non-corrosive  "regulator" 
fish-tail  and  slit  burners,  and  the  Silber  "Concordia"  flat-flame 
burner,  which  has  two  small  burner  orifices  separated  by  an 
intervening  wedge-shaped  piece  of  brass,  are  among  the  best 
ordinary  flat-flame  burners  obtainable  in  the  market.  These 
burners  are  all  of  English  make,  except  the  Broenner  burners, 
made  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Germany.  Of  the  latter 
burner  eleven  numbers  are  made,  consuming  from  one  to  eight 


Gas  Burners  117 

cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour.  They  give  a  uniform  light  with 
varying  gas  pressures,  and  if  judiciously  selected  and  fitted 
with  the  "Cornelian"  globes  with  large  bottom  and  top  open- 
ing and  a  shadowless  glass  holder,  as  recommended  by  the 
manufacturers,  they  give  a  good  and  satisfactory  illumination. 

I  have  not  learned  of  any  efforts  on  the  part  of  American 
gas-fitting  manufacturers  to  bring  out  improved  flat-flame 
burners,  comparable  at  all  in  efficiency  with  those  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  mill  burner  with  screw  check,  the  " Empire"  check 
burner  with  inside  adjustable  screw  cylinder  with  slot,  the 
" Imperial"  burner  with  wire  gauze  to  check  the  flow  of  gas, 
the  Gregory  mica-flap  burners,  and  the  " Young  America" 
burner  with  small  brass  diaphragm  pierced  by  minute  holes, 
are  gas  burners  of  American  make,  and  being  in  the  nature  of 
check  burners  are  somewhat  better  than  the  ordinary  kind. 
I  shall,  however,  have  occasion  in  another  chapter,  on  governor 
burners,  to  mention  some  very  excellent  American  flat-flame 
burners. 

In  a  dwelling  house  of  average  size  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  burners  are  required,  hence  it  will  pay  gas  con- 
sumers to  put  on  their  fixtures  only  the  best  burners,  whatever 
their  price  may  be.  Improved  gas  burners  are  also  much 
preferable  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  because  there  is  less 
contamination  of  the  atmosphere  in  a  house. 

Regarding  the  size  of  the  burners,  I  would  say,  wherever  a 
dim  light  only  is  required,  as  in  halls,  passageways,  and  bath- 
rooms, two-  or  three-foot  burners,  and  for  bedrooms  three-  or 
four-foot  burners,  may  be  used ;  but  for  the  gas  fixtures  in  the 
principal  rooms  large  burners,  consuming  from  five  to  six  cubic 
feet  of  gas  per  hour  are  much  to  be  preferred,  and  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  for  bright  illumination  a  few  large  burners 
-  under  low  pressure  —  are  preferable  to  a  large  number  of 
small  burners.  Under  all  circumstances  consumers  should  avoid 
making  the  mistake  of  procuring  gas  burners  promiscuously 
from  irresponsible  agents,  or  from  peddlers,  and  afterwards 
blaming  the  gas  company  for  "poor  light,"  or  for  exorbitant 
gas  bills. 

Before  leaving  the  flat-flame  burners,  I  ought  to  mention 
-  some  automatic  safety  gas  burners  recently  devised,  the  object 
V  of  which  is  to  automatically  shut  off  the  gas  supply,  in  case  a  gas 


118  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

light  is  accidentally  extinguished,  or  "  blown  out,"  or  in  case 
the  gas  key  is  inadvertently  turned  on.  An  American  patented 
device  of  this  kind  has  a  wire  protruding  from  the  burner  tip,  and 
extending  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  burner,  where  it  comes  in 
contact  with  a  small  valve.  While  the  burner  is  cold  the  valve 
is  closed,  cutting  off  the  gas  supply.  When  a  light  is  applied 
to  the  burner  the  wire  becomes  heated,  expands,  lengthens,  and 
pushes  the  valve  away  from  its  seat,  thereby  admitting  the  gas 
to  the  burner  tip.  As  soon  as  the  flame  is  extinguished,  the 
wire,  by  cooling,  contracts  and  again  cuts  off  the  gas.  A  simple 
safety  regulator  burner  is  patented  by  Jahn,  and  manufactured 
by  Frederick  Lux,  of  Mannheim,  Germany. 

These  burners  would  seem  to  be  specially  adapted  for  hotels 
and  lodging  houses,  where  gas  is  often  "blown  out"  by  ignorant 
people,  and  they  may  prove  successful  in  preventing  suffocation, 
suicides,  explosions,  and  other  accidents  due  to  escaping  gas. 

I  have  devoted  considerable  space  to  the  discussion  of  the 
ordinary  flat-flame  burners  because,  notwithstanding  the  Argand, 
regenerative,  and  incandescent  burners,  the  flat-flame  are  usually 
the  consumer's  favorite  burners,  and  because  the  bulk  of  illumi- 
nating gas  used  for  lighting  purposes  is  still  burnt  in  bat's-wing 
and  fish-tail  burners.  Further  mention  of  flat-flame  burners 
will  be  made  in  the  discussion  of  governor  burners.  (See 
Chapter  XIV.)  I  will  now  pass  on  to  consider  the  round-flame 
or  the  so-called  Argand  burners. 


Argand  or  round-flame  burners  consist  essentially  of  a  hollow 
ring,  connected  with  the  gas  tube  and  perforated  on  its  upper 
surface  with  a  series  of  fine  holes,  from  which  the  gas  issues, 
forming  an  annular,  hollow,  round  flame.  The  Argand  burner 
derives  its  name  from  its  similarity  with  the  Argand  oil  lamp, 
and  like  the  latter  always  requires  a  glass  chimney,  properly 
proportioned  in  diameter  and  height,  to  induce  a  perfect  com- 
bustion by  increasing  the  air  supply  to  the  flame,  and  also  to 
lessen  its  susceptibility  to  side  drafts.  The  Argand  burner 
gives  a  higher  candlepower  per  unit  of  gas  consumed  than 
flat-flame  burners,  but  it  also  develops  a  greater  amount  of 
objectionable  heat.  The  original  burners  of  this  type  were 
not  constructed  on  scientific  principles,  no  provision  having 
been  made  in  them  for  regulating  the  air  supply  to  the  flame 


Gas  Burners  119 

and  —  what  is  equally  important  —  the  pressure  of  gas,  and 
hence  these  burners  were  liable  to  smoke. 

We  are  indebted  for  important  improvements  in  this  direc- 
tion to  Mr.  William  Sugg,  the  well-known  English  manufac- 
turer of  improved  gas-lighting  appliances.  In  his  improved 
Argand  burner,  gas  is  delivered  at  a  very  low  pressure ;  the  supply 
is  distributed  evenly  throughout  the  entire  ring  of  holes;  the 
flame  generated  is  of  even  and  regular  shape;  the  chimney, 
which  is  so  essential  to  the  round-flame  burner,  is  properly 
proportioned  in  diameter  and  height,  and  the  burner  is  made 
of  "steatite"  instead,  as  formerly,  of  metal,  which  abstracts 
too  much  heat  from  the  flame.  The  Sugg  " London"  Argand 
burner,  with  twenty-four  holes,  has  so  many  good  qualities 
that  it  was  selected  by  the  London  Gas  Referees,  in  1869,  as 
the  standard  test  burner  for  sixteen-candle  gas. 

Further  improvements  were  embodied  in  Sugg's  "London" 
improved  Argand  governor  burner,  which  developed  a 
still  better  light  from  the  gas  consumed,  and  in  which  a 
regular  and  uniform  supply  of  gas  to  the  burner  was  insured 
by  the  use  of  either  a  steatite  float  or  a  leather  diaphragm 
governor. 

An  equally  excellent  Argand  burner,  with  automatic  gover- 
nor, is  made  by  the  Silber  Light  Company,  of  London,  while  of 
American    round-flame    burners    I  mention  the    "noiseless" 
Argand  burner,  made  by  the  Gleason  Manufacturing  Company. 
,  All  these  burners  are  much  improved  by  the  addition  of  the 
\  volumetric  gas  governor,  which  maintains  a  steady  flow  of  gas 
^  and  regulates  the  pressure.     Of  this  apparatus  I  have  occasion 
to  speak  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  Siemens  precision  burner  is  an  improved  Argand  burner, 
having  a  flat  disk  in  the  center  of  the  flame,  which  causes  the 
same  to  bulge  out  and  tends  to  a  more  perfect  combustion 
with  increased  luminosity  of  the  round  flame.  This  is  similar 
in  principle  and  construction  to  the  metal  button  deflector 
placed  over  the  air  tube,  as  adopted  in  many  of  the  modern 
improved  central  draft  oil  lamps.  Similar  modifications  of  the 
Argand  burner  are  the  Grand  gas  lamp,  the  Niagara  Argand 
burner,  the  Royal  Argand,  the  Gordon-Mitchell  high-power 
gas  lamp,  with  inverted  annular  burner,  forming  a  small 
regenerative  Argand  burner,  and  the  Morey  incandescent  gas 
burner. 


120  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

In  order  to  obtain  increased  illumination,  duplex  and  multiple 
gas  burners  were  invented.  In  the  double,  duplex,  or  "twin" 
flat-flame  burner,  two  bat's-wing  or  sometimes  two  union-jet 
burners  are  placed  together  on  the  same  body  and  set  at  a  cer- 
tain angle  to  each  other,  so  that  the  two  flames  are  made  to 
combine.  A  somewhat  greater  amount  of  light  is  developed 
thereby  than  by  using  the  two  flames  separately,  but  the  light 
is  no  better  than  that  obtained  through  a  large  single  burner. 
Such  burners  are  used  very  rarely,  but  recently  they  have  been 
revived  for  acetylene  gas  lighting. 

Multiple  burners  consist  of  several  concentric  rings  of  round 
burners,  or  else  of  a  series  of  three,  five,  or  more,  flat-flame 
burners  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  from  whatever  point 
they  are  looked  at,  a  flat  side  of  the  flame  is  exposed.  Bray's 
high-power  street-lamp  burners  belong  to  this  class,  as  well  as 
Sugg's  "Walthamston"  and  "Taj"  high-power  lamps.  They 
have  been  gotten  up  and  used  to  some  extent  to  obtain  a  brighter 
street  illumination,  but  also  for  the  lighting  of  stores  and  large 
halls.  The  street  lanterns  of  this  type  are  made  stormproof, 
so  that  the  flame  is  not  affected  by  the  wind,  and  are  provided 
with  milk-white  glass  at  the  top  of  the  lantern  for  the  purpose 
of  reflecting  the  light  downward.  Multiple  round-flame  burn- 
ers have  been  adopted  to  a  limited  extent  in  lighthouse  and 
street  illumination,  such  as  the  Wigham  multiple  burner  and 
the  Germania  double  and  triple  concentric  Argand  burners. 

The  "Shaw"  reflector  lamp  is  a  regenerative  multiple  flat- 
flame  burner,  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  superheat  the 
gas  before  ignition.  Halliday's  "Clapton"  lamps  are  similar 
in  principle,  and  in  the  United  States  similar  lamps  largely 
used  are  the  Gregory  incandescent  and  the  Gleason  "Beacon" 
lamps. 


I  will  next  consider  the  high-power  or  regenerative  gas  burn- 
ers. In  all  burners  of  this  type  the  high  temperature  due  to 
the  combustion  in  the  gas  flame  is  directly  utilized  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  gas  before  ignition,  or  of  the  air  supply 
before  combustion ,  or  of  both,  the  result  being  an  intensified 
and  more  perfect  combustion,  and  a  vastly  increased  illumi- 
nating power.  All  regenerative  lamps  produce  a  higher  effi- 
ciency of  candlepower  per  cubic  foot  of  gas  consumed  than  is 


Gas  Burners  121 

secured  by  ordinary  burners,  the  burners  are  economical  in  gas 
consumption,  and  the  light  produced  is  intense  and  steady. 

One  of  the  first  regenerative  burners  was  the  Siemens  burner, 
invented  by  Friedr.  Siemens  in  1879.  In  its  original  form  this 
burner  is  a  round-flame  burner,  in  which  the  flame  burns  around 
a  central  porcelain  cylinder,  over  the  top  edge  of  which  it  turns. 
From  this  point  the  products  of  combustion  pass  downward 
through  a  central  flue,  and  in  their  passage  they  heat  a  chamber 
through  which  the  air  passes  upward,  becoming  highly  heated 
by  contact  with  the  burning  body.  The  products  of  combus- 
tion are  then  carried  to  the  escape  pipe  by  means  of  one  or  two 
side  tubes. 

The  first  regenerative  burner  gave  a  very  powerful  light,  but 
it  was  clumsy  and  inelegant  in  form  and  appearance;  the  shadow 
cast  by  the  large  Body  of  the  burner  was  objectionable,  and 
hence  it  did  not  find  much  favor  for  interior  lighting,  although 
it  was  extensively  applied  for  the  lighting  of  streets,  squares 
and  parks,  and  large  halls.  Regenerative  gas  lamps  have 
since  then  been  modified  and  constantly  improved,  and  the 
Siemens  inverted  regenerative  lamp  is  now  manufactured  in 
several  different  forms. 

The  Lungren  regenerative  lamp,  which  resembles  the  Siemens, 
is  practically  an  inverted  Siemens  lamp,  in  which  the  flame 
burns  outward  and  upward  around  a  central  shell  which  it 
heats  to  a  high  temperature.  The  air  supply  enters  above  the 
flame  by  means  of  tubes  extending  across  the  escape  flue,  and 
passes  down  on  both  sides  of  the  flame.  The  flame  is  enclosed 
in  a  clear  glass  bell,  semi-globular  in  shape,  which  is  supported 
by  a  hinged  ring. 

Other  regenerative  lamps,  some  having  the  flame  burning 
from  the  inside  out  and  others  from  the  outside  towards  the 
inside,  and  all  similar  in  principle,  but  different  in  details  of 
design  and  construction,  are  the  improved  Siemens,  the  Wen- 
ham,  Bower,  Clark,  Grimston,  Thorp,  Gordon,  Sugg,  Bray, 
Brown's  " Brilliant,"  Fullford,  "Meteor,"  Butzke,  Schiilke, 
Westphahl  and  Muchall  lamps. 

For  dwelling-house  illumination  regenerative  lamps  have,  up 
to  the  present  time,  been  used  to  a  very  limited  extent  only, 
although  the  fact  that  nearly  all  of  these  lamps  are  powerful 
ventilating  agents  and  may  be  made  to  assist  materially  in 
the  removal  of  the  vitiated  air  of  apartments,  would  seem  to 


122  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

recommend  them  particularly  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 
Their  application  has  been  largely  confined  to  special  cases, 
such  as  the  lighting  of  large  assembly  halls,  stores,  and  for  lighting 
streets  and  squares,  and  wherever  used  they  have  proven  to  be 
very  economical  in  gas  consumption.  The  burners  of  regenerative 
lamps  are  somewhat  complicated,  require  a  nice  adjustment, 
and  are  liable  to  clog  up  with  deposits  of  carbon,  and 
need,  together  with  the  enclosing  glass  globe,  frequent  clean- 
ing and  attention.  This,  together  with  the  high  price  of  the 
Jamps,  has  also  acted  as  a  drawback  against  their  general 
introduction. 

Among  the  latest  regenerative  gas  lamps,  especially  adapted 
for  interior  lighting,  I  mention  Sugg's  patent  "Cromartie"  gas 
lamp.  In  these  lamps  ua  special  form  of  steatite  burner  is 
used  inverted,  with  the  object  of  retarding  the  motion  of  the 
carbon  particles  through  the  length  of  the  flame,  thus  allowing 
sufficient  time  for  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  to  combine 
with  the  carbon  of  the  gas  in  combustion.  This  arrangement 
produces  an  intensely  white  flame  in  the  form  of  a  camelia, 
diffusing  a  perfectly  steady,  white,  shadowless  light  of  great 
illuminating  power."  Each  lamp  is  provided  with  a  Sugg  auto- 
matic leather  diaphragm  governor.  These  Cromartie  lamps 
are  made  in  two  forms,  either  as  ventilating  or  as  non-venti- 
lating lamps.  In  the  ventilating  lamps  the  heat  developed  by 
the  combustion  of  gas  is  not  only  carried  away  without  enter- 
ing the  room,  but  it  is  utilized  to  assist  in  educing  heat  or  viti- 
ated air  from  the  apartments.  In  the  case  of  smoking  rooms 
this  arrangement  is  particularly  effective,  all  smoke  being 
rapidly  conducted  to  the  exterior.  The  air  at  the  ceiling  level 
is  kept  cool  and  pure,  and  furniture,  pictures,  and  gilt  frames 
are  not  subjected  to  damage.  The  Cromartie  lamps  are  said 
by  experts  to  produce  very  high  results  in  candlepower,  the 
quality  of  the  light  is  said  to  be  excellent,  and  as  these  lamps 
are  gotten  up  in  a  variety  of  pleasing  and  artistic  designs, 
shapes,  and  colors,  they  lend  themselves  admirably  to  decorative 
lighting. 

Mr.  MacFie,  gas  engineer  of  the  firm  of  Milne,  Sons  &  MacFie, 
in  a  pr.per  read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  North  British 
Association  of  Gas  Manufacturers  in  Edinburgh,  in  1891,  has 
pointed  out  one  notable  feature  of  all  regenerative  lamps, 
namely,  that  they  throw  the  light  downwards  where  wanted, 


Gas  Burners  123 

whereas  all  flat-flame  burners  tend  to  light  up  the  ceilings  and 
upper  parts  of  the  walls. 


A  further  advance  in  the  perfection  of  gas  lighting  was  made 
by  the  invention  of  the  incandescent  gas  burners.  In  these 
burners  the  flame  is  not  luminous  in  itself,  but  its  heat  is  uti- 
lized in  raising  to  incandescence  some  refractory  substance 
introduced  into  the  burner.  The  latter  is  usually  an  atmos- 
pheric or  Bunsen  burner  with  bluish  flame.  The  light  -giving 
substance  may  be  a  basket  of  platinum,  as  in  the  Lewis  burner; 
or  a  conical-shaped  basket  or  network  of  magnesia,  as  in  the 
Clamond  lamp;  or  a  row  of  finely-shaped,  parallel,  suspended 
rods  of  magnesia,  such  as  is  used  in  the  Fahnejelm  lamp;  or 
finally  a  funnel-shaped  wick  or  mantle  of  cotton  treated  chemi- 
cally with  sulphate  of  zirconium,  and  other  rare  elements, 
such  as  yttrium,  thorium,  didymium,  and  lanthanium,  as  seen  in 
the  original  Welsbach  incandescent  burner. 

The  Clamond  was,  and  the  Welsbach  incandescent  gas  lamp 
is,  used  to  a  very  great  extent  in  Europe,  while  the  use  of  Wels- 
bach mantle  lamps  has  also  become  very  general  in  this  country. 
The  former  is  the  invention  of  a  Paris  chemist,  the  latter  of  a 
Vienna  chemist,  Dr.  Auer  von  Welsbach. 

After  being  first  put  on  the  market  the  Welsbach  burner 
disappeared  again,  owing  to  various  imperfections.  But  it 
afterwards  reappeared',  in  much  improved  form,  and  since  a 
few  years  there  are  numberless  similar  incandescent  burners, 
like  the  Kern  burner,  the  Yotto  burner,  the  Lindsay  lamp,  and 
others.  The  Welsbach  and  other  incandescent  lamps  are  very 
excellent  while  the  mantle  is  new,  but  the  light  deteriorates 
after  some  use  and  loses  some  of  its  intensity,  and  this  is  par- 
ticularly the  case  where  the  atmosphere  carries  much  dust, 
which  settles  on  the  mantle,  forming  a  sort  of  incrustation, 
which  renders  the  light  less  incandescent  and  changes  it  from 
white  to  red.  One  objection  to  the  Welsbach  style  of  incan- 
descent lamp  is  that  the  cotton  mantle  is  extremely  delicate 
and  readily  breaks,  also  that  the  glass  cylinders  surrounding 
the  filament  crack  at  times,  and  in  doing  so  break  the  mantle. 
As  good  mantles  are  expensive,  the  Welsbach  lamp,  although 
undoubtedly  very  economical  in  the  use  of  gas,  in  the  end  some- 
times proves  to  be  quite  costly.  Among  its  advantages  are  the 


124  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

steadiness  of  its  light,  particularly  when  used  with  a  volumetric 
governor,  and  the  decreased  radiation  of  heat  as  compared  with 
other  high-power  gas  lamps. 

The  Welsbach  incandescent  lamps  have  for  many  years  been 
adopted  in  European  cities  for  street  illumination,  and  quite 
recently  street  lamps  in  the  United  States  were  fitted  with 
incandescent  mantles,  and  very  favorable  results  have  been 
obtained  as  regards  lighting  power.  In  New  York  and  Brooklyn 
all  flat-flame  street  gas-lamps  are  now  replaced  by  Welsbach 
burners. 

The  latest  modification  of  incandescent  'gas  lighting,  intro- 
duced in  1905,  consists  in  the  use  of  inverted  burners.  The 
inverted  gas  burners  throw  the  light  downward  and  hence  do 
not  cast  shadows;  the  mantles  are  shorter  and  hence  do  not 
break  quite  so  easily;  the  light  given  off  is  better  and  stronger, 
and  the  gas  consumption  is  less.  For  these  reasons  the  in- 
verted incandescent  gas  lamp  has  quickly  proven  successful, 
and  its  popularity  is  bound  to  increase.  Quite  recently,  such 
lamps  have  been  used  in  connection  with  the  compressed-gas 
system  for  the  illumination  of  railroad  cars,  both  here  and 
abroad,  and  the  mantles  seem  to  be  but  little  affected  by  the 
vibration  and  jarring  of  the  cars. 

Another  modification  of  the  incandescent-mantle  burner  is 
what  is  usually  called  an  u air-hole  burner,"  the  chimneys  hav- 
ing a  number  of  holes  to  furnish  air  to  the  burner.  The  device 
seems  to  increase  the  luminosity  of  the  mantle,  and  accordingly 
air-hole  incandescent  burners  have  become  quite  popular,  and 
a  number  of  such  burners  have  been  put  on  the  market. 

In  Europe  self-lighting  devices,  and  even  self-lighting  man- 
tles are  used  to  a  large  extent.  A  number  of  these  have  been 
introduced  and  repeatedly  tried  here,  but  failure  resulted  in 
most  cases.  The  composition  of  the  water  gas,  so  much  used 
in  American  cities,  has  undoubtedly  been  one  cause  of  the  com- 
mercial failure  of  these  devices.  It  is  claimed  that  the  gas 
used  here  does  not  contain  sufficient  hydrogen  to  make  the 
device  operate  successfully. 


The  foregoing  description  of  gas  burners  would  be  incom- 
plete without  a  brief  mention  of  the  albo-carbon  light,  which 


Gas  Burners  125 

gives  a  much  increased  illumination  and  a  very  white,  soft,  and 
steady  light,  by  the  carburetting  of  the  ordinary  gas.  This 
process  consists  in  supplying  to  the  ordinary  gas,  at  the  gas 
burner,  a  further  amount  of  carbon  illuminants.  The  enrich- 
ing solid  carbon  material  is  kept  in  a  vessel  combined  with  the 
gas  fixture,  and  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  gas  flame  is  used 
to  preheat  the  gas  supply  and  to  vaporize  the  carbon,  which  thus 
enriches  the  gas,  and  effects  a  saving  in  the  gas  consumption. 

The  discomfort  and  feeling  of  oppression  existing  in  rooms 
lighted  with  gas  burners,  and  which  is  due  to  the  heat  created 
by  the  flames,  to  the  products  of  incomplete  combustion  escaping 
into  the  air,  and  to  the  amount  of  watery  vapor  given  off,  has 
led  to  the  invention  of  so-called  "ventilating"  gas  burners. 

Among  such  burners  may  be  mentioned  the  sunlight  burner, 
a  fixture  with  one  or  more  concentric  clusters  of  burners,  placed 
near  the  ceiling.  The  clusters  are  placed  under  a  ventilator, 
which  is  connected  at  its  upper  end  with  a  ventilating  duct 
leading  either  to  the  outer  air  or  to  some  larger  vertical  vent 
duct  or  shaft.  Some  of  the  regenerative  gas  lamps  already 
spoken  of  have  such  a  vent  duct,  and  cause  an  efficient  venti- 
lation of  the  room.  It  is  stated  that  a  ventilating  regenerative 
gas  burner,  using  about  20  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  will  remove 
not  only  its  own  products  of  combustion,  but  in  addition  about 
5000  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  vitiated  air  of  a  room. 

In  large  rooms  of  assembly,  lighted  by  gas,  it  is  imperative 
that  either  ventilating  gas  lamps  be  used,  or  that  special  venti- 
lating arrangements  be  provided  at  the  ceiling  to  remove  all 
injurious  products  of  combustion. 

In  the  same  way,  it  is  true  that  no  large  gas  heating  or  cook- 
ing stove,  or  gas  water-heater  should  be  used  without  thorough 
and  sufficient  means  of  ventilation. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GAS-PRESSURE    REGULATION. 

GAS  governors  may  be  defined  as  devices  for  regulating  the 
flow  of  gas  in  a  gas  main,  in  a  gas  fixture,  or  in  a  gas  burner. 

As  we  shall  see  in  this  chapter,  such  devices  are  beneficial  in 
preventing  wasteful  gas  consumption  and  in  preventing  the 
roaring  of  gas  flames;  we  shall  also  learn  that  they  are  more 
useful  and  serviceable  than  the  method  of  regulating  the  pres- 
sure at  the  meter  stopcock  or  at  the  fixture  gas  key. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  gas  pressure  in  the  supply 
mains  is  constantly  fluctuating,  and  that,  at  times  and  in  cer- 
tain districts,  it  is  greatly  in  excess  of  what  is  required  for 
proper  combustion  at  the  burners.  The  burning  of  gas  under 
too  high  pressure  means  a  large  waste  of  gas  and  a  loss  in  illu- 
mination, amounting  sometimes  to  from  33-50  per  cent.  Con- 
sumers are  made  aware  of  an  excessive  gas  pressure  by  the 
roaring,  hissing,  or  singing  gas  flames,  by  the  jumping  up  of 
the  flames  and  by  other  irregularities. 

The  pressure  of  gas  is  measured  by  siphon  or  U-shaped  glass 
gauges,  filled  with  water,  and  provided  with  a  scale  of  inches 
and  tenths  of  inches.  The  pressure  is  always  given  in  tenths 
of  inches  of  a  column  of  water. 

The  gas  pressure  should  be  about  -f-Q  inch  at  the  gas  meter, 
and  since  the  friction  in  the  pipes  would  cause  a  loss  of  from  T25 
to  T3o  inch,  this  would  leave  a  pressure  of  ^  at  the  burner, 
which  is  about  right  for  flat-flame  and  Argand  burners,  while 
incandescent  burners  require  a  little  higher  pressure. 

It  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  gas  companies  willfully  put  on  a 
high  pressure  at  the  works  in  order  to  make  the  consumers' 
meters  go  faster.  A  moment's  reflection  ought  to  convince 
any  fair-minded  person  that  this  is  not  the  case.  If  the  above 
supposition  were  true,  the  gas  companies  would  be  the  losers  in 
two  ways,  viz. : 

(1)  A  high  pressure  leads  to  a  larger  loss  by  leakage  at  the 
joints  in  the  street  mains,  a  loss  usually  estimated  at  from 

126 


Gas- Pressure  Regulation  127 

seven  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  gas  output,  but  often  largely 
in  excess  of  this  amount. 

(2)  An  excessive  pressure  would  mean  an  increased  con- 
sumption, or  rather  waste,  of  gas  in  all  street  lamps  having 
ungoverned  burners  and  not  supplied  through  a  meter,  for 
which  gas  companies  are  paid  a  fixed  sum  per  lamp  per  year. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  it  is  impracticable  for  gas  com- 
panies to  maintain  a  constant  pressure  in  the  street  mains. 

In  a  town  of  small  extent,  with  absolutely  level  districts,  and 
with  centrally  located  gas  works,  a  gas  pressure  of  10/10  inches 
of  water  in  the  mains  would  be  ample  to  supply  all  consumers. 
Such  conditions,  however,  are  quite  exceptional,  and  as  a  rule, 
owing  to  variations  in  levels  of  various  districts,  owing  to  vari- 
ous diameters  of  the  gas-supply  mains  and  submains,  owing  to 
the  unavoidable  friction  in  the  pipes  and  the  extreme  distances 
to  which  gas  has  to  be  conducted  from  the  works,  the  gas  works 
are  obliged  to  put  on  a  high  initial  pressure  in  order  to  insure  a 
sufficient  supply  to  the  most  distant  consumers  and  to  those 
located  in  low-lying  districts.  Again,  no  matter  how  well  the 
gas  distributing  pipes  in  a  house  may  be  proportioned  and 
adjusted,  it  is  impossible  to  maintain  an  even  pressure  at  the 
gas  burners,  for  the  pressure  in  the  house  pipes  and  at  the 
burners  changes  continually  with  the  varying  number  of  burners 
lit  at  one  time  in  a  dwelling,  and  also,  and  to  a  higher  degree 
so,  with  the  varying  consumption  in  a  street  or  in  a  district. 
These  unavoidable  fluctuations  of  pressure  range  from  10/10  to 
40/10  inches  of  water  pressure. 

The  evils  of  high  gas  pressure  have  long  been  recognized, 
and  efforts  have  been  made  to  avoid  the  same.  An  excess  of 
pressure  at  the  gas  burner  means  imperfect  combustion,  loss 
of  illuminating  power,  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere,  blowing 
and  hissing  gas  jets,  and  a  wasteful  use  of  gas.  In  speaking 
of  burners,  I  have  already  stated  that  a  high  pressure  and 
small  burners  are  not  to  be  recommended;  that,  on  the 
contrary,  ample  volume  of  gas,  issuing  at  a  low  pressure, 
from  large  burners,  are  desirable  conditions  for  successful  gas 
illumination. 

The  following  results  of  experiments,  taken  from  an  able 
paper  by  Mr.  Butterworth,  the  general  manager  of  the  Columbus 
(0.)  Gas  Company,  exhibit  clearly  the  evil  effect  of  over-pres- 
sure at  the  burner: 


128 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

TABLES  I. 


(A) 

Common  3-Cubic-Foot-per-Hour  Burner  Tip. 

Pressure     

10/10 

15/10 

20/10 

25/10 

30/10 

Consumption  in  cubic  feet 

per  hour  

5.70 

7.55 

9.15 

10.40 

11.45 

Candlepower     

13.36 

16.62 

17.64 

18.88 

17.08 

Candlepower  per  cu.  ft.  per 

hr.  of  gas  consumed     .    . 

2.344 

2.201 

1.917 

1.815 

1.492 

(B) 

Common  5-Cubic-Foot-per-Hour  Burner  Tip. 

Pressure  
Consumption  in  cubic  feet 
per  hour 

10/10 

7.45 
16.32 

2.191 

15/10 

9.70 
21.96 

2.264 

20/10 

11.50 

23.28 

2.025 

25/10 

13.15 
21.80 

1.658 

30/10 

14.20 
20.28 

1.428 

Candlepower 

Candlepower  per  cu.  ft.  per 
hour  of  gas  consumed 

These  experiments  demonstrate  the  enormous  waste  of  gas 
occurring  with  common  burners,  where  no  attempt  is  made  to 
regulate  the  pressure.  They  also  show  that  high  pressure 
means  a  loss  in  candlepower;  for,  whereas  the  consumption  of 
gas  doubled,  the  efficiency  of  the  burner  decreased  57  per 
cent,  for  the  3-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner,  and  53  per  cent  for 
the  5-cubicrfoot-per-hour  burner,  showing  a  slight  advantage 
in  favor  of  the  larger  burner. 

There  are  various  ways  in  which  the  gas  pressure  in  the 
house  pipes  or  at  the  burners  may,  up  to  a  certain  extent,  be 
controlled  and  checked.  One  rough  method  consists  in  throt- 
tling the  main  gas-cock  at  the  gas  meter,  and  another  in 
turning  the  gas  keys  at  each  fixture,  i.e.,  at  the  burners.  Some- 
times both  methods  are  jointly  used,  the  meter-cock  control 
to  cut  down  wider  fluctuations  of  pressure  and  the  burner  key 
to  effect  a  finer  regulation.  Such  methods,  however,  are  un- 
satisfactory and  unreliable,  because  the  control  of  pressure  is  not 
automatic,  and  because  it  would  obviously  be  impracticable  to 
require  the  consumers  to  devote  care,  time,  and  almost  constant 
attention  to  the  frequent  manipulation  and  adjustment  of  the 
burner  keys,  made  necessary  by  the  constant  fluctuations  in 
the  pressure.  Indeed,  this  would  prove  to  be  such  a  trouble- 
some and  annoying  proceeding  that  it  would  be  likely  to  be 
overlooked  or  forgotten. 


Gas-Pressure  Regulation 


129 


A  multitude  of  check  burners  have  been  devised,  all  having 
in  view  a  retardation  of  the  velocity  with  which  gas  escapes 
at  the  burners.  This  they  accomplish  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
as  the  obstructing  material  is,  as  a  rule,  fixed  in  the  burner 
and  cannot  be  adjusted,  whereas  the  pressure  fluctuates  con- 
stantly, it  is  obvious  that  check  burners  can  not  and  do  not 
attempt  to  regulate  the  flow  of  gas  or  govern  the  pressure. 
Even  the  best  check  burners,  having  adjustable  checks,  would 
require  a  frequent  adjustment  during  the  evening  hours  and, 
therefore,  would  have  no  advantage  over  the  simpler  method 
of  checking  the  flow  by  turning  the  gas  keys.  All  that  can 
really  be  said  in  favor  of  check  burners  is  that  they  are  better 
than  the  common  gas  burners  and  that  they  are  somewhat 
cheaper  than  automatic  governor  burners.  The  Empire  burner, 
the  Young  America,  the  Broenner,  Leoni,  and  Bray  burners, 
Sugg's  "Winsor"  burner,  Gregory's  mica-check  burner,  and 
Silber's  bat's-wing  burner,  having  a  lower  chamber  in  which  the 
gas  expands  and  thus  escapes  at  the  slit  of  the  burner  tip  under 
diminished  pressure,  are  examples  of  this  class. 

From  Mr.  Butterworth's  paper  I  quote  again  two  tests  of 
consumption  and  efficiency,  made  with  a  5-cubic-foot-per-hour 
Empire  check  burner  and  a  No.  6  Bray  special  burner: 

TABLES  II. 


(C) 

5-Cubic-Foot-per-Hpur  Empire  Check  Burner. 

Pressure 

10/10 

3.10 
9.24 

2.981 

15/10 

4.05 
12.44 

3.071 

20/10 

4.85 
15.18 

3.129 

25/10 

5.50 
16.74 

3.044 

30/10 

6.05 
18.04 

2.982 

Consumption  in  cubic  feet 
per  hour  
Candlepower      

Candlepower  per  cu.  ft.  per 
hour  ...        .    . 

(D) 

No.  6  I 

•ray  Specia 

1  Burner. 

Pressure  
Consumption  in  cubic  feet 
per  hour  .... 

10/10 
6  10 

15/10 

7  75 

20/10 
9  10 

25/10 
10  25 

30/10 

Candlepower      ... 

15  60 

18  56 

20  74 

22  72 

Candlepower  per  cu.  ft.  per 
hour  .    . 

2  557 

2  395 

2  279 

2  216 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  observations  that  check  burn- 
ers do  not  prevent  wasteful  use  of  gas,  that  they  do  not  control 


130  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

gas  pressure,  and  that  the  gas  consumption  of  check  burners 
necessarily  varies  with  the  pressure.  In  the  above  tests  the 
consumption  of  the  Empire  burner  was  nearly  doubled  when 
the  pressure  increased  from  10/10  to  30/10,  whereas  the  candle- 
power  per  unit  of  gas  consumption  remained  the  same. 

While  the  gas  works  may,  by  using  station  and  district  gov- 
ernors, reduce,  or  control  to  a  certain  extent,  the  pressure  in 
the  street  mains,  it  is  obviously  desirable  that  the  consumers 
should  use  means  in  their  houses  for  controlling  the  gas  pres- 
sure automatically.  Gas  companies  long  ago  recognized  the 
evils  of  excessive  pressure,  and  also  the  fact  that  economy  in 
lighting  depends  upon  its  efficient  control.  Where  they  under- 
take to  furnish  public  illumination  of  streets  and  squares  by 
contract  with  the  city  for  a  stated  fixed  annual  sum  of  money 
for  each  street  lamp,  they,  therefore,  applied  to  the  burners  auto- 
matic means  for  controlling  the  pressure  and  thus  preventing 
waste  of  gas. 

Two  efficient  methods,  each  one  of  them  only  applicable 
under  certain  conditions,  may  be  adopted  by  the  consumer  to 
effect  an  automatic  control  of  the  gas  pressure;  gas  governors 
are  accordingly  of  two  entirely  different  kinds.  One  may 
apply  an  automatic  gas  governor  on  the  house  service-pipe  at 
the  meter,  which  will  regulate  and  reduce  the  pressure  in  the 
•whole  house-pipe  system,  and  maintain  a  practically  constant 
pressure  at  the  level  of  the  meter,  or  else  one  may  use  auto- 
matic gas  governor  burners,  which  control  the  rate  of  gas 
supply  to  each  burner  separately,  establishing  a  constant  con- 
sumption at  each  burner,  while  leaving  the  full  pressure  in  the 
house  pipes.  By  the  use  of  governor  burners  higher  results 
are  attained  in  pressure  regulation  than  by  the  use  of  pressure 
regulators. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  gas-pressure  regulators  in  the 
market,  and  as  it  is  the  chief  object  of  this  chapter  to  point 
out  to  the  consumer  that  there  are  means  available  for  effi- 
cient control  of  the  gas  pressure,  rather  than  to  offer  a  detailed 
description  of  these  devices,  many  of  which  are  quite  similar  in 
principle  and  in  construction,  I  will  simply  state  that  there  are 
two  kinds  of  pressure  regulators,  namely,  the  dry  and  the  wet 
regulators,  the  former  using  a  leather  diaphragm,  whereas  the 
latter  uses  a  float,  cup  or  bell,  dipping  either  in  glycerine  or  else 
in  mercury. 


Gas-Pressure  Regulation  131 

The  Sugg  and  the  Peebles  diaphragm  pressure  regulators 
are  examples  of  English  devices  of  the  first  class,  whereas  the 
Scott,  Shaw,  Sugg,  Bower,  Ewart,  Brown's  "Excelsior"  and 
Peebles'  mercury,  are  English  pressure  regulators  belonging  to 
the  second  class. 

The  " National"  automatic  and  the  Amick  gas  regulators 
are  American  liquid  governors,  having  a  brass  globe  floating  in 
a  seal  of  glycerine,  and  the  Beattie,  O'Gorman,  and  Patterson 
regulators  are  examples  of  American  mercury-seal  regulators. 
Some  of  these  are  obtainable  for  sale,  whereas  others  are  only 
placed  on  a  rental  basis  in  the  houses  of  consumers  by  com- 
panies obtaining  a  revenue  from  the  saving  effected  as  shown 
by  the  monthly  gas  bills. 

It  is  an  essential  condition,  where  pressure  regulators  are 
applied,  that  the  house  pipes  be  made  very  ample  in  size,  that 
there  be  as  few  elbows  or  bends  in  the  pipes  as  possible,  and 
that  the  tubing  of  gas  fixtures,  the  aperture  of  gas  keys,  and  the 
slits  of  the  burners  be  large;  in  other  words,  that  the  volume 
of  gas  supplied  to  the  burners  be  ample,  otherwise  the  inevi- 
table result  of  a  control  of  pressure  is  a  loss  of  light,  or  reduced 
illumination.  Therefore,  such  pressure  regulators  should  never 
be  used  by  consumers  where  the  above  conditions  are  not  com- 
plied with,  otherwise  the  remedy  might  prove  worse  than  the 
evil  complained  of.  It  is  equally  useless  to  apply  pressure 
regulators  to  houses  in  low-lying  districts  where  the  pressure 
is  already  low.  In  all  cases  the  saving  in  gas  consumption, 
which  is  the  result  of  a  reduction  in  gas  pressure,  should  be 
effected  without  any  loss  of  illuminating  power. 

A  pressure  governor  or  regulator  placed  on  the  service  pipe  of 
a  house  reduces  an  excessive  gas  pressure  and  secures  a  toler- 
able uniformity  of  pressure  and  supply  at  all  burners;  but  this 
is  only  true  of  buildings  with  small  floor  area  and  of  few  stories 
in  height.  For  large  factories  and  halls,  with  many  lamps  on 
the  same  level,  where  the  whole  number  is  always  lighted,  a 
pressure  regulator  will  answer. 

In  the  case  of  large  buildings  and  in  all  buildings  of  many 
stories,  on  the  other  hand,  an  absolutely  uniform  pressure  is 
not  attained,  because  no  matter  how  well  the  distribution  pipe 
system  may  have  been  calculated  and  arranged,  there  is  neces- 
sarily some  loss  of  pressure  through  friction  in  long  pipes  and  at 
elbows,  so  that  the  gas  at  burners  situated  at  a  distance  flows 


132  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

at  a  lower  pressure.  Owing  to  its  specific  gravity,  which  is  not 
quite  one-half  that  of  air  (about  0.45),  gas  tends  to  gain  in 
pressure  with  increased  elevation,  each  rise  of  ten  feet  verti- 
cally adding  one-tenth  inch  of  water  pressure.  If  the  governor 
is  adjusted  so  as  to  give  a  pressure  of  6/10  inches  on  the 
ground  floor,  the  pressure  on  a  floor  ten  feet  higher  would  be 
7/10  inches  and  so  on.  This  explains  why,  in  high  buildings, 
even  with  a  pressure  regulator  at  the  meter,  the  gas  pressure 
increases  for  each  floor,  causing  the  burners  in  the  upper  stories 
to  "blow."  Therefore,  the  better  method  in  such  cases  is  to 
provide  a  governor  on  each  floor. 

It  is  sometimes  feasible  in  cases  where  the  number  of  burners 
lighted  remains  constant,  and  where  the  pressure  varies  only 
slightly,  to  control  and  reduce  the  pressure  on  each  floor  level 
by  a  governor,  and  in  addition  to  use  a  good  check  burner  at 
the  fixtures.  Sugg's  "Winsor"  screw-regulating  burner  has 
been  devised  with  this  special  object  in  view. 

The  best  and  surest  remedy,  undoubtedly,  consists  in  the  use 
of  automatically  acting  governor  burners  at  all  fixtures.  Gover- 
nor *  burners  must  not  be  confounded  with  check  burners, 
which  only  retard,  whereas  governor  burners  regulate,  the  flow 
of  gas  in  such  a  way  that,  as  the  pressure  increases,  their 
regulating  action  increases,  and  vice  versa.  Such  governor 
burners  cause  the  gas  to  issue  at  the  burner  in  a  constant 
volume,  no  matter  what  the  pressure  in  the  service  pipe  may 
be,  hence  the  name  "volumetric"  burners  is  sometimes  applied 
to  them. 

The  first  automatic  regulating  burners  were  devised  for 
street  lamps,  and  they  were  sometimes  very  clumsy  in  shape, 
casting  large  shadows  downward.  They  have  been  much 
improved  of  late  years,  and  now  there  are  several  good  gover- 
nor burners  obtainable  which  are  compact  in  shape,  not  un- 
sightly on  the  gas  fixture,  and  which  act  almost  perfectly  in 
regulating  the  supply  to  the  burners,  and  in  preventing  gas 
from  flowing  out  under  excessive  pressure.  Even  governor 
burners,  however,  may  in  time  clog  up,  and  will  require  occa- 
sional cleaning. 

There  are  many  different  makes  of  volumetric  burners,  and  it 
is  not  my  intention  to  describe  any  of  them  in  detail.  Briefly 
stated,  the  flow  of  gas  is  controlled  in  them  by  a  light  cup, 
cone,  or  disk,  placed  in  an  enlarged  chamber  of  the  burner, 


Gas-Pressure  Regulation  133 

which  floats  up  or  down  as  the  gas  pressure  increases  or  dimin- 
ishes, and  being  connected  with  a  valve  at  the  entrance  to  the 
burner,  it  opens  or  closes  the  same,  and  thus  causes  more  gas 
to  be  admitted  when  the  pressure  falls,  and  when  the  pressure 
rises  reduces  the  supply. 

Volumetric  governor  burners  are  equally  applicable  to  flat- 
flame,  round-flame,  regenerative,  and  incandescent  burners. 
The  best  regenerative  lamps  are  always  fitted  up  with  such  a 
regulator,  and  likewise  are  the  Argand  and  flat-flame  burner 
lamps  of  the  highest  make  always  sold  with  them. 

Among  the  best-known  governor  burners  I  mention  those  of 
Giroud,  Wilder,  Sugg,  Peebles  and  Lux,  the  first  one  being  a 
French  burner,  the  second  a  burner  of  American  make,  the 
third  of  English,  the  fourth  of  Scotch  make,  and  the  last  one 
being  a  German  volumetric  burner. 

Other  burners,  not  so  well  known  or  extensively  used,  are 
the  Rappleys  rheometric  governor  burner,  endorsed  in  1882  by 
the  Committee  on  Science  and  Arts  of  the  Franklin  Institute; 
the  Champion  burner,  patented  by  Van  Wies  in  1890;  the 
Chamberlain,  Boore  and  Jackson  burners,  all  of  American 
make;  the  Schuelke  adjustable  gas  governor  burner,  of  German 
make;  and  the  Orme,  Hawkins  and  Acme  burners,  of  English 
make  —  the  Hawkins  burner,  being  the  only  governor  burner 
with  union  jet  tip  known  to  me. 

My  list  does  not  pretend  to  be  exhaustive,  and  it  is  quite 
possible  that  I  may  have  unintentionally  omitted  some  good 
burners  which  have  not  come  to  my  notice. 

The  Wilder  volumetric  governor  burner  is  the  invention  of 
Moses  G.  Wilder,  M.E.,  of  Philadelphia,  who  obtained  a  patent 
for  it  in  1880.  This  burner  is  a  good  example  of  an  American 
governor  burner,  and  it  is  suitable  not  only  for  flat-flame  and 
Argand  burners,  but  also  for  regenerative  lamps  and  for  the 
Welsbach  incandescent  lamp.  The  maker,  in  describing  it, 
states  that  it  is  not  a  pressure  reducer  or  regulator,  that  the  flow 
of  gas  through  it  is  not  changed  by  very  wide  variations  of 
pressure,  and  that  it  secures  a  uniform  rate  of  supply  to  the 
burner,  with  little  or  no  reduction  of  pressure. 

The  inventor  of  the  Boore  burner,  Mr.  Lewis  Boore,  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  states  that  he  endeavored  to  produce  a  reliable  and 
simple  automatic  governor  burner  of  low  cost,  which  would 
indicate  practically  correctly  for  a  very  wide  range  of  pressure, 


134 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


without  having  such  an  extreme  accuracy  or  such  close  adjust- 
ment as  to  destroy  its  utility. 

William  Sugg  &  Co.  make  two  kinds  of  volumetric  burners,  a 
steatite  float  governor  and  a  leather  diaphragm  governor  burner. 

Sugg's  patent  u Alexandra"  governor  burners  combine  great 
economy  with  efficiency,  and  produce  a  brilliant,  white,  silent 
light.  They  are  fitted  with  steatite  float  governor,  and  the 
superior  light  attained  is  also  a  result  of  adopting  double  an- 
nealed Albatrine  globes  with  wide  opening.  An  even  better 
flat-flame  burner  by  the  same  maker  is  Sugg's  patent  "Chris- 
tiania"  governor  burner,  fitted  with  a  specially  prepared  leather 
diaphragm  governor,  with  Sugg's  patent  table-top,  circular-slit, 
steatite  burner  tip.  Sugg's  London  improved  Argand  burner 
always  has  a  governor  burner  attached  to  the  fixture. 

Mr.  Wilder  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  his  governor  burner, 
to  operate  well,  requires  a  full  street  pressure.  This  rule  is 
applicable  to  all  volumetric  burners;  hence,  where  these  are 
used,  a  pressure  regulator  should  not  be  used  at  the  meter. 

In  order  to  show,  by  actual  experiments,  how  nearly  uniform 
the  consumption  of  gas  remains  with  governor  burners,  I  refer 
the  reader  again  to  Mr.  Butterworth's  able  paper  on  governor 
burners,  wherein  is  published  the  following  table,  showing  the 
gas  consumption  of  a  number  of  such  burners  under  varying 
pressures : 

TABLE   III. 


Pressure. 

10 
10 

Cu. 

Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

15 
10 

Cu. 
Ft. 
•  per 
Hr. 

6.20 
6.50 
4.50 
4.65 

4.95 
5.50 
5.97 
4.95 

20 
10 

25 
10 

30 
10 

35 
10 

Cu. 
Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

40 
10 

Cu. 
Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

Type  and  Make 
of  Burner. 

Cu. 

Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

6.35 
6.20 
4.55 
4.55 

4.95 
5.40 
5.21 
4.95 

Cu. 
Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

6.30 
6.20 
4.55 
4.65 

4.95 
5.30 
6.19 
4.95 

Cu. 
Ft. 
per 
Hr. 

6.25 
6.05 
4.65 
4.70 

4.90 
5.07 
6.05 
4.95 

6  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  governor 
burner    
6  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  governor 
burner    
5  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  governor 
burner 

6.20 
5.95 
4.50 
4.50 

4.90 
5.60 
4.96 
4.95 

6.25 
6.15 
4.65 
4.65 

4.90 
4.80 
5.89 
4.95 

6.40 
6.05 
4.60 
4.55 

4.90 
4.60 
5.69 
4.95 

Sugg 
Peebles 
Chamberlain 
Rapplye 

Lux 
Champion 
Boore 
Wilder 

5  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  governor 
burner    
5  cu.  ft.  per  hr.  governor 
burner    
Adjustable  burner      .    . 
Adjustable  burner      .    . 
Adjustable  burner      .    . 

Gas-Pressure  Regulation  135 

The  last  burner  in  the  table  showed  a  perfect  uniformity  of 
supply  under  the  wide  range  of  pressures  used  in  the  test. 
Some  of  these  governor  burners  are  adjustable,  and  if  they  are 
required  to  pass  a  certain  quantity  of  gas  per  hour,  a  nice  adjust- 
ment is  necessary,  which  can  only  be  accomplished  if  the 
candlepower  and  quality  of  gas,  its  pressure  and  specific  gravity 
are  known.  A  governor  burner,  adjusted  for  a  gas  of  certain 
specific  gravity,  would  not  remain  correct  for  a  gas  of  different 
density,  or  for  any  temperature  which  would  change  the  density. 
Both  the  pressure  regulators  on  the  main  service  pipe  and 
the  governor  burners  render  the  gas-piping  system  independent 
of  the  unavoidable  fluctuations  of  pressure  in  the  street  mains 
and  accomplish  a  saving  in  gas  consumption  by  preventing 
useless  waste,  amounting  to  a  reduction  of  from  twenty  to 
forty  per  cent  in  the  gas  bills.  Other  incidental  advantages 
gained  are :  A  great  improvement  in  the  steadiness  of  a  gas 
flame  without  regard  to  the  number  of  burners  lit  or  the  con- 
stantly changing  street  pressure;  the  hissing  or  roaring  noise, 
the  blowing,  and  the  flickering  of  the  light  is  prevented;  the 
illumination  becomes  stronger;  the  smoking  of  Argand  burn- 
ers is  prevented,  and  the  air  of  the  room  is  vitiated  to  a  much 
smaller  extent  by  the  products  of  imperfect  combustion.  With 
governor  burners,  however,  these  results  are  attained  in  a 
higher  -degree  than  with  pressure  regulators  on  the  service 
pipe.  All  efficiently-acting  gas  governors  should  effect  a  saving 
in  the  consumption  of  gas  without  causing  a  diminution  in  the 
light. 

In  New  York  State  the  Legislature  quite  recently  limited 
the  maximum  pressure  of  gas  in  the  mains  to  that  due  to 
f| -inches  of  a  water  column.  While  this  law  aims  at  correcting 
the  evils  of  too  heavy  gas  pressure,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is 
desirable  to  control  the  pressure  in  this  way.  It  might  have 
the  undesirable  effect  that  in  some  districts  or  streets  con- 
sumers would  suffer  from  lack  of  pressure  and  lack  of  a  sufficient 
supply  of  gas. 

While  trying  to  comply,  as  far  as  possible,  with  the  laws,  the 
gas  companies  received  hundreds  of  complaints  daily  that  gas 
ranges  would  not  burn  properly,  and  that  gas  flames,  left  partly 
turned  down,  went  out  on  account  of  lack  of  a  gas  supply. 

As  already  mentioned,  gas  companies,  in  order  to  avoid  ex- 
cessive gas  leakage  in  the  street  main,  carry  only  a  pressure 


136  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

at  the  works  sufficient  for  efficient  service,  hence  this  question 
could  well  be  left  to  their  judgment.  In  many  city  districts, 
which  have  grown  beyond  anticipation,  or  where  numerous 
high  buildings  are  located  closely  together,  the  old  gas  street 
mains  have  become  inadequate  for  the  service  to  be  performed, 
and  hence  a  higher  initial  pressure  must  be  put  on  to  force 
sufficient  gas  through  the  pipes.  A  possible  solution  of  the 
difficulty  might  be  found  in  a  division  of  a  city  into  zones  or 
districts,  each  district  being  provided  with  a  suitable  automatic 
pressure  governor. 

To  sum  up,  practical  considerations  must  decide  which  form 
of  regulation  it  is  best  to  adopt.  In  this  connection  the  fol- 
lowing rules  are  to  be  recommended,  viz. : 

(a)  Where  the  street  mains  are  large  and  the  differences  of 
level  insignificant,  use  either  check  burners  or  volumetric 
burners. 

(6)  Where  the  street  mains  are  small,  or  the  pressure  is  low, 
or  the  house  pipes  insufficient  in  size,  neither  method  of  regu- 
lation should  be  employed,  and  the  only  remedy  would  be  to 
put  in  not  only  large  burners,  but  also  large  pipes. 

(c)  Where  the  town  is  hilly  and  there  are  reasonably  large 
differences  of  elevation  in  the  districts,  a  pressure  regulator 
will  answer  in  districts  on  a  higher  level  than  the  gas  works, 
provided  the  house  pipes  are  large,  the  gas  keys  full  bore,  and 
the  building  only  a  few  stories  in  height,  and  not  of  great  extent 
laterally. 

(d)  Where  in  such  districts  the  buildings  are  high  or  very 
large,  a  pressure  regulator  on  each  floor  should  be  used,  to- 
gether with  regulating  check  burners  at  the  fixtures,  but  in 
such  cases  governor  burners  at  the  fixtures  are  a  simpler  remedy, 
and  are,  therefore,  to  be  preferred. 

(e)  Never  use  gas  pressure  governors  where  the  gas  pressure 
is  low,  or  where  the  house  gas  pipes  are  known  to  be  insufficient 
in  size  in  proportion  to  the  gas  consumption,  as  the  results 
would  be  very  unsatisfactory. 

(/)  Do  not  use  gas  pressure  regulators  on  the  main  service 
where  incandescent  mantle  burners  are  used,  for  these  require 
a  higher  pressure  than  flat-flame  burners. 

(</)  Do  not  use  gas  pressure  regulators  on  the  line  supplying 
gas  cooking  fixtures,  except  where  the  pressure  is  unusually 
heavy. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

GAS  GLOBES  AND  GLOBE  HOLDERS. 

FLAT-FLAME  burners  are,  as  a  rule,  surrounded  with  gas  globes. 
Practical  experience  and  observation  have  established  the  fact 
that  if  these  are  unsuitably  arranged,  or  of  improper  shape, 
they  constitute  another  factor,  causing  deficient  illumination, 
imperfect  combustion,  and  frequently  a  waste  of  gas  and  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  gas  bills. 

Gas  globes  are  devices,  usually  of  glass,  and  used  chiefly  to 
protect  open  flames  against  draft,  and  thereby  to  prevent 
the  annoying  unsteadiness  and  flickering  of  the  light,  but  also 
used  as  ornament  to  add  to  the  external  appearance  of  the  gas 
fixtures.  They  are  also  employed  to  shade  the  eyes  from  the 
direct  glare  of  the  light,  to  diffuse  and  soften  the  light,  and 
finally,  gas  globes  are,  for  safety's  sake,  placed  over  naked 
burners  to  shield  the  flame  from  coming  into  direct  contact  with 
inflammable  materials.  Glass  shades  are  used  to  reflect  the 
light  downward.  From  all  of  which  it  follows  that  gas  globes 
are  used  for  utility  even  more  than  for  ornament,  hence  their 
design  and  construction  should  be  based  on  sound  principles. 

In  order  to  obtain  good  illumination,  and  to  avoid  the  flick- 
ering of  the  light,  the  air  necessary  for  combustion  should  be 
brought  to  the  flame  in  a  slow,  uniform  and  steady  current. 
If  the  air  supply  is  insufficient,  a  flame  is  apt  to  smoke  and 
will  blacken  ceilings  and  contaminate  the  air.  If  the  air  rushes 
to  the  flame  in  a  violent  manner,  this  will  destroy  the  steadi- 
ness of  the  light,  the  light  will  flicker  and  jump,  and  it  has  the 
further  detrimental  effect  of  cooling  the  flame,  and  thereby 
reducing  its  brilliancy. 

The  old  style  glass  globes  were  quite  defective  in  shape, 
form,  and  material.  They  were  made  with  very  narrow  top 
and  bottom  openings,  or,  if  tulip-shaped  and  widening  at  the 
top,  the  bottom  opening  was  extremely  narrow,  being  often  but 
one  and  one-half  or  two  inches  in  diameter,  and,  where  such 
globes  were  in  use,  the  ceiling  was  often  the  only  well  illumi- 

137 


138  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

nated  place.  The  result  was  that,  owing  to  the  smallness  of 
the  bottom  aperture,  the  contracted  globe  acted  like  a  chimney, 
causing  the  sharp  air  current  to  impinge  upon  the  flame  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  seriously  disturb  it,  and  thereby  causing  it  to 
flicker  in  a  distressing  manner.  Another  defect  of  the  old 
style  globes  is  that  they  form  dust  traps,  and  that  they  are 
readily  soiled  in  lighting. 

If,  in  addition  to  this  defect  in  the  globes,  the  gas  pressure 
i  at  the  burner  was  excessive,  the  resulting  illumination  neces- 
sarily was  very  imperfect.  To  determine  the  actual  loss  of 
light  due  to  small  openings  in  globes,  Dr.  Wallace  made  a 
series  of  experiments,  which  showed  the  following  results: 

A  naked  flame  was  tested  and  found  to  give  16.8  candle- 
power.  The  same  flame,  surrounded  with  a  7.5-inch  diameter 
clear  globe,  with  2.375-inch  bottom  opening,  gave  15.4  candle- 
power,  or  a  loss  of  8.3  per  cent.  The  same  flame  surrounded 
with  a  7.5-inch  diameter  clear  globe,  with  2.25-inch  bottom 
opening,  gave  15.2  candlepower,  or  a  loss  of  9.5  per  cent.  The 
same  flame,  surrounded  with  a  7.5-inch  diameter  clear  globe, 
with  2-inch  bottom  opening,  gave  13.6  candlepower,  or  a  loss 
of  19  per  cent.  The  same  flame,  surrounded  with  a  7.5-inch 
diameter  clear  globe,  with  1.5-inch  bottom  opening,  gave  13 
candlepower,  or  a  loss  of  22  per  cent.  The  same  flame,  sur- 
rounded with  a  7.5-inch  diameter  clear  globe,  with  1-inch  bot- 
tom opening,  gave  12  candlepower,  or  a  loss  of  28.6  per  cent. 

All  glass  globes,  moreover,  absorb  a  certain  amount  of  light, 
and  the  loss  of  light  and  corresponding  waste  of  gas  due  to  this 
cause  increases  the  more  opaque  the  glass  tube  is.  It  also 
increases  with  the  soiling  of  the  globes.  Fancy  "ruby"  or 
other  colored,  etched,  ground  or  otherwise  decorated  globes,  in 
particular,  absorb  a  large  amount  of  light,  and  hence  increase 
the  gas  bills  by  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  larger  number  of 
lamps  lighted  on  a  chandelier.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority 
that  the  light  is  obstructed  as  follows : 

Per  Cent. 

By  clear  glass  globes 10-15 

By  slightly  ground  globes 24 

By  globes  ground  all  over 25-40 

By  opal,  thick  glass  globes     64 

Globes  of  thin,  milk-white  or  opal  glass,  if  made  with  bottom 
opening  four  inches  in  diameter,  give  a  soft  and  mellow  light. 


Gas  Globes  and  Globe  Holders  139 

Lastly,  the  globes  with  narrow  bottom  and  wide  top  opening 
are  objectionable,  because  instead  of  casting  light  outward  and 
downward  by  reflection,  they  throw  the  greatest  amount  of 
light  up  to  the  ceiling,  where  it  is  not  wanted. 

It  matters  little  how  attractive  in  shape  and  artistic  in  out- 
line such  old  style  globes  are ;  as  long  as  they  tend  to  disturb 
the  flame  they  are  clearly  objectionable.  These  defects  have 
been  gradually  recognized,  and  such  globes  with  contracted 
openings  are  now  happily  being  discarded.  The  new  form  of 
globes  has  wide  bottom  openings,  which  admit  the  air  without 
causing  a  draft;  the  shape  of  the  globe  is  designed  more 
with  a  due  regard  to  its  proper  functions  than  solely  from  a 
decorative  point  of  view.  Such  globes  induce  a  straight,  up- 
ward, gentle  current  of  air,  and  the  flame  remains  steady 
and  bright.  All  globes  of  modern  construction  have  bottom 
openings,  at  least  4  and  5  inches  in  diameter,  and  have  the 
incidental  advantage  that  a  portion  of  the  light  falls  directly 
downward  without  being  obstructed. 

The  Sugg  "Alexandra"  and  "Christiania"  burners  are  sur- 
rounded with  globes  of  most  desirable  shape  and  material,  in 
which  the  top  and  bottom  are  of  the  same  size;  the  Broenner 
burners  have  similarly  shaped  " Cornelian"  globes;  and  Wilder, 
in  the  description  of  his  volumetric  burner,  recommends  globes 
4  5  inches  hi  diameter  at  the  bottom  and  5.5  inches  at  the  top. 

Regarding  the  material  for  globes,  clear^crystal  glass  is  the 
best,  because  it  absorbs  the  least  light.  Still,  it  oftentimes 
becomes  desirable  to  render  the  light  of  a  gas  flame  soft  and 
mellow,  and  for  such  cases  thin,  milk-white,  opal  globes  are  best 
and  quite  effective.  Sugg  uses  with  his  best  flat-flame  gov- 
ernor burners  double-annealed,  large-size  globes,  with  wide 
bottom  opening,  which  he  calls  "Albatrine"  globes,  and  which 
give  a  particular  softness  to  the  light.  The  cheaper  kind  of 
opaque  white  glass  globes  should  be  avoided,  as  they  intercept 
as  much  as  from  70  to  80  per  cent  of  the  light. 

In  connection  with  globes,  it  is  noteworthy  that  somewhat 
increased  illumination  is  obtained  by  using  globe  holders  which 
are  as  little  light-obstructing  as  possible,  i.e.,  very  thin  sheet- 
brass  or  brass-wire  globe  holders.  The  old  style  fixtures  had 
heavy  and  cumbrous  cast-brass  holders,  or  heavy  disks,  tri- 
angles, or  rings,  all  of  which  are  objectionable,  because  they 
intercept  a  portion  of  the  light  and  cast  a  shadow  downward, 


140  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

and  thereby  cause  a  loss  of  light.  The  new  shadowless  triangle 
globe  holders,  made  of  three  simple  prongs  of  brass  wire,  not 
more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  without  any  rims 
whatever,  are  recommended  by  all  dealers  in  advanced  gas- 
lamp  fixtures. 

Lastly,  the  position  of  the  glass  globe  in  reference  to  the  gas 
flame  is  of  a  good  deal  of  importance  where  it  is  desired  to 
secure  a  steady,  bright  light.  It  has  been  found,  long  ago,  by 
experiment,  that  by  arranging  a  shadowless  globe  holder  on 
the  burner  in  such  a  manner  as  to  place  the  level  of  the  bottom 
of  the  flame  in  line  with  the  bottom  edge  of  the  globe,  the  flame 
will  burn  very  quietly  and  steadily,  and  will  not  be  affected 
much,  if  any,  by  the  ascending  air  current,  whereas  if  the  flame 
is  set  higher  it  is  apt  to  flicker. 

This  correct  position  and  shape  of  a  glass  globe  has  been 
pointed  out  repeatedly  by  such  gas  engineers  as  Wilder,  Peebles, 
Sugg,  Broenner,  Silber,  and  others,  in  connection  with  their  gas- 
burning  appliances;  but  on  the  whole,  in  practice,  little  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  this  simple,  yet  efficient,  rule. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Gas  Light  Associa- 
tion, held  in  Cincinnati,  in  October,  1877,  Mr.  James  Somer- 
ville,  now  Chief  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  the  Indian- 
apolis Gas  Co.,  read  a  paper  on  "The  defects  of  the  gas  globe 
and  holder,"  which  contains  criticisms  so  applicable  to  many  of 
the  holders  and  globes  still  in  use  that  I  quote  the  following 
extracts  from  the  same : 

"A  gas  globe  ought  to  combine  utility  with  ornament.  As 
they  are  at  present  constructed,  the  utility  is  entirely  left  out. 
In  rooms  where  gas  is  used  the  ceiling  is  often  the  only  place 
well  lighted.  The  gas  flame  inside  the  globe  flickers,  wavers, 
and  dances,  as  the  cold  air  rushes  through  the  narrow  orifice, 
impinging  against  the  light,  causing  it  to  smoke  at  the  points, 
and  destroying  half  its  value,  while  the  agitated  flame  allows  a 
portion  of  the  gas  to  escape  unburnt.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  manufacturers  of  globes  and  holders  may  be  induced  to 
make  them  more  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended,  viz.:  to  impart  steadiness  to  the  flame,  and  to  direct 
and  allow  the  rays  of  light  to  reach  that  point  where  they  are 
most  required,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  be  ornamental.  The 
improvement  or  remedy  needed  is  simple,  effectual  and  inex- 
pensive. 


Gas  Globes  and  Globe  Holders  141 

"  The  first  and  greatest  defect  of  the  ordinary  globe  is  its 
2-inch  opening  at  the  bottom.  This  diameter  is  just  two  inches 
too  small,  yet  the  maker  of  globe  holders  contrives  still  more 
to  contract  the  opening  and  obscure  the  light  by  furnishing  the 
globe  with  what  is  meant  to  be  an  ornamental  holder,  with  the 
metal  of  the  arms  spread  out  at  right  angles  to  the  light.  A 
good  globe-holder  ought  to  be  constructed  only  of  three  prongs 
of  brass  wire,  not  over  0.125  inch  thick,  and  any  additional 
strength  required  ought  to  be  put  parallel  with  the  downward 
rays  of  light,  so  that  it  will  cast  no  shadow.  No  rim  whatever 
is  required  to  the  holder;  the  prongs  ought  to  be  so  fashioned  at 
the  ends  as  to  receive  the  rim  of  the  globe  and  support  same. 

"  The  globe  ought  to  be  made  with  its  bottom  opening  never 
less  than  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  7  to  8  inches  diameter 
at  its  widest  part.  These  dimensions  will  allow  the  air  ample 
passage  through  the  globe,  without  striking  against  the  flame, 
and  will  actually  have  a  tendency  to  steady  the  light,  which  is 
the  greatest  desideratum.  It  will  also  allow  the  use  of  the  best 
form  of  burner,  and  the  rays  of  light  will  have  ample  scope  to 
strike  downward  to  the  place  where  they  are  most  required, 
and,  in  short,  the  consumer  will  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  light. 

"All  globes  ought,  furthermore,  to  have  a  space  of  3  inches 
of  clear  glass  around  the  bottom,  and,  in  ornamenting  and 
flowering,  the  maker  ought  to  have  this  one  end  always  in  view, 
to  intercept  the  rays  of  light  as  little  as  possible.  Opal  and 
ground  glass  globes  ought  to  be  entirely  discarded,  it  being 
known  that  they  obscure  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  light. 

"  If  globes  and  holders  are  made  and  used  as  described,  the 
gas  companies  will  have  far  less  complaints  of  bad  gas  and  poor 
light,  and  it  becomes  more  and  more  the  duty  of  the  compa- 
nies to  attend  to  the  wants  of  the  consumer.  It  is  a  common 
experience  that  it  pays  the  gas  engineer  well,  in  every  way,  to 
see  that  the  consumer  gets  the  full  benefit  of  the  light  which  he 
is  purchasing  from  gas  companies." 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GAS    FIXTURES. 

GAS  fixtures  are  devices  or  appliances,  more  or  less  ornamental, 
for  burning  illuminating  gas,  connected  with  the  gas  outlets  in 
ceilings  or  on  side  walls,  provided  with  stopcocks  or  gas  keys  to 
control  the  flow  of  gas,  and  carrying  one  or  several  gas  burners. 
The  term  includes  brackets,  pendants,  clusters,  and  chandeliers 
for  indoor  lighting.  In  a  wider  sense,  it  sometimes  includes  also 
the  fixtures  in  which  gaseous  fuel  is  used  for  heating  or  cooking, 
such  as  gas  stoves,  gas  logs,  gas  ranges,  etc. 

In  this  chapter,  when  speaking  of  gas  fixtures,  I  refer  to  light- 
ing devices  only. 

A  few  remarks  regarding  the  choice  of  proper  gas  fixtures  — 
not  from  the  artist's  or  decorator's  point  of  view,  but  from  the 
gas  engineer's  standpoint  —  may  prove  useful  to  the  gas  con- 
sumer; for  oftentimes  ill-contrived,  poorly  constructed,  or  defec- 
tive chandeliers  or  bracket  fixtures  are  the  cause  of  deficient  inte- 
rior illumination,  and  many  gas  leaks  in  rooms  are  due  to  a  poor 
class  of  fixtures. 

Manufacturers  of  gas  fixtures,  with  rare  exceptions,  do  not  pay 
much  attention  to  the  essential  requirement  of  correctness  in 
mechanical  execution.  The  designs  of  fixtures  which  they  offer 
for  sale  may  be  exceedingly  pretty,  neat,  artistic,  and  decora- 
tive, but  fixtures  with  too  much  scroll  work  often  turn  out  to 
be  quite  objectionable,  where  the  gas  supplied  to  the  house  is 
improperly  purified,  or  where  the  distributing  pipes  for  gas  are 
pitched  toward  the  chandelier  or  bracket,  or  where  the  drop  is 
taken  directly  from  the  bottom  of  a  line,  in  which  cases  the 
fixtures  in  a  short  time  accumulate  much  watery  vapor  or  naph- 
thaline, which  hardens  in  the  tubing  and  obstructs  the  passages 
for  gas. 

Firms  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fixtures  often  employ 
artists  at  a  high  salary  to  design  novel  forms  of  expensive  orna- 
mental gas  fixtures,  but  who  has  ever  heard  of  a  firm  engaging  a 

142 


Gas  Fixtures  143 

competent  mechanical  expert,  or  an  " illuminating  engineer/'  as 
the  new  profession  is  called,  one  thoroughly  conversant  with  the 
requirements  to  be  observed  to  obtain  the  best  illumination  and 
the  highest  degree  of  illumination,  to  make  details  for  the 
mechanical  execution  of  the  work  and  to  advise  on  the  best  kind 
of  burners  and  globes  to  be  used? 

People  building  and  fitting  up  houses  generally  select  the  gas 
fixtures  according  to  their  price  and  their  more  or  less  artistic 
shape,  and  seldom  pay  any  attention  to  the  question  whether  the 
shape  of  the  chandelier  or  the  gas  bracket  is  well  contrived  and 
not  light-obstructing,  whether  the  tubing  is  ample  in  size,  whether 
the  fixtures  have  been  tested  for  tightness,  and  whether  the  gas 
keys  are  free  from  defects.  Such  kind  of  fixtures,  however 
defective  they  may  be,  are  sold  in  great  numbers  and  are  ren- 
dered still  more  useless  by  unsuitable  or  bad  burners,  and  by 
globes  of  improper  shape  and  color,  and  with  narrow-bottomed 
openings,  causing  the  flames  to  flicker. 

Faulty  mechanical  execution  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the 
cheaper  class  of  fixtures.  Even  the  best  and  most  expensive 
modern  fixtures  are  susceptible  of  much  improvement  in  these 
respects. 

One  serious  fault  is  the  use  of  too  small  gas  tubing  in  the 
fixtures,  through  which  the  requisite  flow  of  gas  to  supply  the 
burners  cannot  be  established.  It  is  quite  common  to  find  large 
gas  chandeliers  with  six  or  eight  burners  constructed  of  one- 
quarter-inch  tubing.  A  simple  calculation  shows  that  a  one- 
quarter-inch  pipe,  ten  feet  long,  is  only  capable  of  supplying 
5.7  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  at  a  pressure  of  T4o  inches  of  water 
column;  hence  the  tubing  would  be  just  large  enough  to  supply 
one  5-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner  instead  of  six  or  sometimes 
eight  burners  per  hour.  It  would  be  quite  useless  to  use  on  such 
fixtures  any  type  of  improved  governor  burner. 

It  is  obvious,  that  where  pains  are  taken  to  pipe  a  house  for 
gas  with  all  service  and  distributing  pipes  of  sufficiently  large 
caliber,  it  is  equally  desirable  to  have  the  passages  for  gas  in  the 
fixtures  of  ample  bore  to  get  the  required  amount  of  light;  in 
other  words,  the  main  tube  of  a  chandelier  should  be  of  such 
a  diameter  as  to  be  able  to  pass  the  necessary  volume  of  gas 
required  by  the  total  number  of  burners  on  the  fixture,  all  of 
which  may  be  lighted  at  one  time;  and  again,  the  side  tube  for 
each  burner  and  the  -bore  of  the  gas  key  should  be  of  such  a 


144  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

diameter  as  to  afford  passage  for  an  adequate  volume  of  gas  to 
each  burner. 

All  gas  keys  of  fixtures  should  be  made  strong  and  of  full 
bore;  they  should  be  ground  with  care,  so  as  to  be  tight-closing, 
yet  easily  turned.  A  serious  defect  inherent  to  many  fixtures 
is  the  leakage  at  the  stopcock,  caused  either  by  defective  work- 
manship or  by  keys  getting  worn  out  or  becoming  honeycombed 
or  loose.  It  is,  in  most  cases,  a  matter  of  impossibility  to  apply 
any  pressure  test  to  the  gas-pipe  system  of  a  house  while  the  gas 
fixtures  are  connected,  as  they  usually  leak  at  the  fixture  joints, 
at  the  swing  joints  of  brackets,  at  extension  pendants,  and  at  the 
gas  keys  much  more  than  at  the  pipe  joints. 

It  should,  therefore,  be  made  a  rule,  that  all  large  or  heavy 
chandeliers  should  be  tested  before  they  leave  the  factory,  and 
their  tightness  should  be  guaranteed  by  the  makers  when  the 
fixtures  are  sold. 

The  hanging  or  putting  in  position  of  the  gas  fixtures  should 
properly  belong  to  the  gas-fitter  who  piped  a  building  for  gas. 
The  universal  custom,  however,  is  to  leave  this  work  to  the 
gas-fixture  dealer  or  manufacturer,  and  it  is  a  common  experience 
that  after  fixtures  are  hung  or  put  up  the  fixture  joints  leak  more 
or  less  when  the  gas  is  turned  on  for  the  first  time  at  the  meter. 
It  would  seem  to  me  to  be  a  great  deal  better  and  safer  to  have 
skilled  gas-fitters  do  the  work,  and  thus  have  one  trade  only 
responsible  for  any  defects. 

The  mechanic  who  does  this  work  should  use  the  utmost  care 
to  make  the  joints  absolutely  tight,  and  he  should  furthermore 
see  that  the  joints  do  not  become  partly  obstructed  by  bits  of 
white  lead,  squeezed  out  at  the  inside  of  the  joint. 

It  is  customary  for  the  fixture  dealer  or  manufacturer  to 
provide  the  gas  fixtures  with  burners,  and  from  personal  obser- 
vation and  experience  I  can  state  that  gas-fitters  and  gas-fixture 
men  take  scarcely  any  interest  whatever  in  the  kind  of  burners 
which  they  put  on  fixtures,  except  that  in  some  instances  they 
may  select  burners,  the  flames  of  which  will  not  crack  the  globes. 
The  bulk  of  the  gas-consuming  public  are  indifferent  to  this 
matter,  and  so  we  find  in  practice  that  even  the  most  elaborate 
and  expensive  gas  fixtures  are  provided  with  only  the  cheapest 
and  most  ordinary  kind  of  burners,  and  often  with  badly  pro- 
portioned gas  globes  and  cumbersome  globe  holders.  The  same 
size  of  burner  tip  is  used  without  regard  to  the  amount  of  light 


Gas  Fixtures  145 

required  in  various  rooms.  The  burners  are  carelessly  put  on 
and  the  gas  passages  are  often  partly  choked  with  white  lead, 
or  the  gas  keys  are  not  the  full  bore  of  the  tubing. 

It  is  far  better  to  buy  gas  fixtures  without  gas  burners  and 
glass  globes,  and  to  purchase  separately  the  very  best  kind  and 
quality  of  burners,  and  to  insist  on  the  use  of  globes  with  wide 
bottom  opening,  supported  by  shadowless  wire-prong  holders. 
(See  Chapter  XV.) 

Purchasers  of  gas  fixtures  are  advised  to  stipulate,  when 
buying,  that  the  fixtures  be  tested  separately  at  the  factory,  and 
again  afterwards  under  a  lighter  pressure  after  they  are  hung. 

Although  good  burners  cost  considerably  more  than  the 
common  bad  ones,  the  extra  price  is  more  than  compensated 
for  by  the  yielding  of  a  more  satisfactory  light,  and  by  the  saving 
in  the  gas  bill.  Some  of  the  governor  burners  mentioned  here- 
tofore are  the  best  obtainable  burners  and  deserve  unqualified 
commendation. 

Old-fashioned  gas  fixtures  are  often  quite  defective,  and  may 
even  become  dangerous  by  reason  of  having  so-called  "  all- 
round  "  keys  or  taps  which  are  not  made  with  stop-pins.  It  is  a 
frequent  experience,  particularly  in  lodging  houses  and  hotels, 
that  gas  leaks,  or  even  cases  of  asphyxia  by  inhalation  of  escap- 
ing illuminating  gas,  are  caused  by  the  incomplete  turning  of 
these  all-round  keys,  or  by  the  accidental  turning  on  of  the  gas 
after  the  extinguishing  of  the  light. 

Quite  often  in  the  course  of  my  professional  travels  to  other 
cities  and  towns,  I  have  come  across  first-class  hotels  having 
gas  fixtures  in  the  guests'  rooms  which  are  dangerous  on  this 
account,  and  I  likewise  find  such  fixtures  with  gas  keys  with- 
out stop-pins  in  private  houses,  particularly  in  out-of-the-way 
places,  in  the  cellar,  in  housemaids'  closets,  or  in  servants'  bed- 
rooms, where  their  use  is  attended  with  considerable  risk.  I 
have,  years  ago,  argued  that  the  use  of  such  fixtures  should  be 
prohibited  by  act  of  legislature.  It  is  at  least  to  be  hoped  that 
when  the  time  arrives,  when  building  departments  will  look 
after  the  gas  piping  in  houses  and  exercise  a  supervision  over 
the  gas  fixtures,  similar  to  the  supervision  now  enforced  in 
sanitary  matters  and  about  plumbing  fixtures,  they  will  pay 
some  attention  to  the  above-mentioned  defects,  with  which 
underwriters  have  long  been  familiar. 

The  modern  fixtures  are  always  provided  with  stop-pins,  but 


146  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

the  metal  of  which  they  consist  is  often  much  too  light,  and  after 
some  use  the  pins  crack  off  or  bend  out  of  shape.  The  remedy 
consists  obviously  in  having  all  check-pins  attached  to  gas  keys 
made  of  good  size  and  extra  strong,  and  to  have  them  well 
soldered  on  and  fastened. 

Gas  escapes  frequently  occur  with  water-slide  chandeliers, 
when  the  water  which  seals  the  joints  evaporates.  The  leakage 
of  gas  can  be  avoided  either  by  frequent  additions  of  water,  or  by 
putting  on  the  water  some  sweet  oil  or  glycerine,  which  retards 
the  evaporation.  While  water- joint  pendants  are  quite  common 
in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  they  are  not  much  used  in  our 
country,  where  either  cork-slide  pendants  or  telescopic  extension- 
joint  chandeliers  are  preferred,  which  dispense  entirely  with  the 
chain  and  counterbalance  weight  and  the  water  seal. 

Gas  fixtures  may  be  divided  into  fixtures  hung  on  side  walls, 
or  bracket  lamps,  fixtures  hung  from  the  ceiling,  called  drop- 
lamps,  pendants,  and  chandeliers  or  gasoliers,  and  portable  gas 
fixtures. 

Bracket  fixtures  may  be  either  stiff  brackets  or  horizontal 
swing  brackets,  with  one,  two,  or  three  joints,  or  brackets  with 
parallel  motion,  as  used  for  reading  lamps,  or  for  ophthalmo- 
scopic  purposes. 

Drop  lamps  with  one  or  two  arms  are  usually  called  pendants, 
whereas  the  term  chandelier  (sometimes  called  gasolier)  applies 
to  pendant  fixtures,  usually  ornamental,  having  three  or  more 
branches  or  arms  fitted  with  gas-lamps.  Drop  lamps  with  single- 
center  burners  are  sometimes  termed  "  lyras  "  or  hall  lanterns. 
The  ceiling  joint  of  such  fixtures  may  be  a  stiff  joint,  a  hinged 
joint,  or  a  swing  joint.  Larger  and  heavier  fixtures  are  hung 
with  universal  ball-and-socket  joints.  Chandeliers  are  often 
provided  with  extension  fixtures,  to  pull  down,  and  the  joint 
in  these  is  either  a  cork  or  telescopic  joint.  If  the  whole 
chandelier  can  be  lowered,  the  fixture  is  hung  with  counter- 
weights and  the  joint  has  a  water  seal  (hydraulic  gasolier). 

Each  burner  is  usually  controlled  by  a  separate  gas  key, 
except  in  rare  instances,  where  cluster  burners  set  close  together 
are  used,  such  as  the  incandescent  "  Beacon  "  lamps,  the  sun- 
burners  and  the  multiple,  high-power  flame  lamps. 

The  rules  of  the  United  Gas  Improvement  Co.,  of  Philadelphia, 
are  the  only  gas  rules  in  which  some  consideration  is  given  to  the 
gas  fixtures.  They  contain  the  following: 


Gas  Fixtures  147 

Requirements  for  Gas  Fixtures. 

1.  All  fixtures  must  be  made  so  that  at  all  traps  there  is  provision 
for  letting  out  water  of  condensation. 

2.  Tubing  for  chandelier  arms,  where  of  brass,  must  not  be  made  of 
less  than  0.375-inch  brass  tubing   up  to  24  inches  spread,  0.45-inch 
brass  tubing  for  up  to  30-inch  spread,  and  0.5-inch  brass  tubing  up  to 
36-inches  spread. 

3.  Straight  arms  or  straight  pendants  must  have  not  smaller  than 
0.25-inch  iron  pipe  in  arms. 

4.  Stems  to  chandeliers  and  pendants  up  to  6  burners  must  have  not 
less  than  0.25-inch  iron  pipe,  and  from  6  to  12  burners  not  less  than 
0.375-inch  iron  pipe.     All  openings  in  keys  or  swing  joints  must  not  be 
less  than  0.125  inch. 

5.  All  keys  must  be  well  ground,  and  so  fitted  as  to  show  no  leak 
under  3-pound  mercury  gauge,  when  the  keys  can  be  turned  by  finger. 

6.  The   opening  in  all  globe  rings  must  be  a  snug  fit   against  the 
burner  nozzle,  and  must  flare  out  in  an  inverted  cone  shape,  so  that  the 
burner,  in  screwing  down,  will  not  strike  the  knife  edge  of  the  flare,  but 
hold  the  ring  tight  by  binding  against  the  sides  of  the  cone,  making  at 
the  same  time  a  tight  joint  with  the  nozzle  threads. 

7.  The  company  reserves  the  right  to  take  fixtures  apart  at  any  time, 
and  to  refuse  to  pass  them,  if  they  are  not  constructed  in  accordance 
with  good  workmanship. 


CHAPTER  XVII.A 

GAS   METERS   AND    GAS-METER    STORIES. 

IN  the  early  days  of  gas  lighting,  no  means  were  available 
for  measuring  the  quantity  of  gas  which  a  consumer  used. 
The  only  method  of  arriving  at  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
consumption  was  to  take  into  consideration  the  size  of  the 
house,  the  number  and  size  of  the  gas  burners  and  fixtures, 
and  the  duration  of  the  gas  lighting,  which,  as  is  well  known, 
differs  in  the  various  seasons  and  months  of  the  year.  (See 
Tables  in  Chapter  XXI.) 

Such  a  system  must  necessarily  have  been  very  crude  and 
unsatisfactory,  for  it  did  not  and  could  not  discriminate  be- 
tween the  saving  and  the  wasteful  or  dishonest  consumers,  both 
of  whom  had  to  pay  the  same  amount. 

The  first  gas  meter,  or  apparatus  for  measuring  the  quantity 
of  gas  consumed  in  a  given  place  and  time,  was  invented  by 
Samuel  Clegg  about  the  year  1815,  or  23  years  after  gas  was 
first  manufactured.  This  was  a  wet  meter,  which  was  subse- 
quently improved  by  John  Malam  and  Samuel  Crossley.  Malam 
invented  the  dry  meter  in  1820. 

The  gas  meter  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  gas 
company's  service  and  the  consumers'  house  pipes  and  fix- 
tures. "It  is  at  the  meter,"  says  Mr.  Joseph  Shaw,  a  noted 
British  gas  engineer,  "  where  supplier  and  supplied  meet  and 
exchange  congratulations  or  otherwise,  and  where  originates 
that  spring  of  difficulties  and  disputes  between  producer  and 
purchaser,  which  frequently  leaves  anything  but  a  good  impres- 
sion on  the  minds  of  either.  That  the  meter  plays  a  most 
important  part  in  the  supply  of  gas  there  can  be  no  doubt 
whatever.  Upon  it  rests  the  responsibility  of  dealing  honestly 
with  the  gas  consumer,  and  at  the  same  time  of  not  defrauding 
the  company;  equity  should  be  its  motto,  and  justice  its  con- 
stant practice.  It  is  clear  that  an  instrument,  filling  such  an 
onerous  position,  should  be  constructed  on  the  very  best  prin- 
ciple and  of  first-class  materials." 

148 


Gas  Meters  Und  Gas  Meter-Stories  149 

The  principal  reason  for  the  universally  prevailing  distrust 
of  the  gas  meter  is,  doubtless,  the  fact  that  consumers,  as  a 
rule,  do  not  know  anything  about  its  construction  or  operation. 
To  the  majority  of  householders  the  gas  meter  is  nothing  but 
a  mysterious  apparatus,  which  is  supposed  to  register  as  the 
gas  company  wishes  it  to.  "Tojie  like  a  gas  meter"  has  become 
a  popular  expression  of  this  distrust,  and  in  the  daily  press  the 
instrument  has  received  more  than  ordinary  attention,  both 
from  the  editor  of  the  "  funny  column  "  and  from  complaining 
correspondents. 

Without  going  deeply  into  details,  an  attempt  will  be  made 
in  the  following  to  explain  the  construction  and  internal  mech- 
anism of  gas  meters. 

There  are,  broadly  speaking,  t\vo  principal  kinds  of  gas  meters, 
namely  the  wet  and  the  dry  gas  meter.  The  wet  meter  was  the 
first  one  to  be  invented  and  has  held  its  place  in  some  countries 
up  to  the  present  day,  while  in  others  preference  is  now  given, 
for  reasons  which  will  appear  further  on,  to  the  dry  meter. 

The  wet  meter  is  so  called  because  of  the  fact  that  water 
must  be  used  up  to  a  fixed  level  in  its  interior  chambers  to  seal 
the  measuring  compartments.  A  wet  meter  is  practically  an 
iron  or  tin  box,  either  cylindrical  or  rectangular,  containing  on 
the  inside  a  peculiarly  constructed  measuring  drum.  This 
drum  is  divided  into  chambers  or  compartments  containing 
a  measurable  fixed  volume  of  gas;  the  drum  rotates  and  its 
chambers  are  alternately  filled  with  gas  and  emptied.  The 
rotations  of  the  drum  are  recorded  by  means  of  a  proper  gearing 
on  the  dials  of  an  index.  These  dials  do  not  register  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions,  but  indicate  the  gas  consumption  in  cubic 
feet.  The  drum  is  made  to  revolve  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
upon  its  sides  and  upon  the  surface  of  the  body  of  water;  the 
gas  itself,  therefore,  furnishes  the  motive  power  as  it  passes 
through  the  meter. 

It  is  clear  that  the  essential  thing  in  a  wet  meter  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  permanent  water  line;  when  this  water  line  is 
lowered  from  any  cause,  the  cubic  contents  of  the  measuring 
compartments  become  larger,  and  hence  a  volume  of  gas  in 
excess  of  the  quantity  registered  is  passed,  and  therefore  the 
meter  registers  "slow"  or  against  the  company.*  Leakage  and 

*  A  gas  meter  is  designated  "  slow  "  when  it  registers  a  less  volume 
of  gas  than  actually  passes  through  it;  it  is  called  "fast"  when  the 
recorded  consumption  is  in  excess  of  the  amount  actually  passing. 


150  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

evaporation  of  water  in  a  wet  meter  are  therefore  in  favor 
of  the  gas  consumer.  A  tilting  of  the  wet  meter  also  leaves 
insufficient  water  to  seal  the  wings  of  the  drum,  and  thus  some 
gas  may  pass  through  unregistered.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  water  line  should  vary  by  being  increased,  the  cubic  capacity 
of  the  chambers  of  the  drum  is  reduced;  in  this  case  a  meter 
registers  "fast,"  or  in  favor  of  the  company.  To  guard  against 
slow  registration  it  is  necessary  for  the  gas  company  to  refill 
the  meter  from  time  to  time,  and  in  order  that  the  water  line 
may  not  be  too  high,  a  permanent  overflow  is  established,  which 
with  a  wet  meter,  set  level,  protects  the  consumer  against  any 
wrong  registration.  To  guard  against  the  other  danger,  i.e., 
that  the  water  line  should  be  lowered,  a  float  is  introduced 
which  closes  a  supply  valve  in  the  meter  when  the  water  should 
be  too  low,  and  thus  makes  the  meter  cease  to  operate.  In 
some  meters  a  double-acting  valve,  operated  by  a  float,  is  used, 
which  protects  the  consumer  by  shutting  off  the  meter,  in 
case  the  water  line  should  be  too  high.  It  is  obvious  that  a  wet 
meter,  containing  water,  is  liable  to  freeze,  and  for  this  reason 
its  location  should  be  selected  with  care.  It  sometimes  becomes 
necessary  to  fill  the  compartment  with  a  mixture  of  water  and 
glycerine  to  prevent  freezing*  The  difficulties  mentioned  led  to 
the  invention  of  the  second  type  of  gas  meter,  namely  the  dry 
meter. 

The  interior  working  mechanism  of  dry  meters  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  wet  meters.  As  its  name  indicates,  a  dry 
meter  does  not  rkjtoe  any  water  in  its  working  compartments. 
The  outer  casing  of  dry  meters  is  usually  of  tinned  iron,  and  is 
sub-divided  by  an  interior  central  partition.  On  each  side  of 
this  partition  there  are  one,  or  sometimes  two,  movable  dia- 
phragms consisting  of  flexible  leather  sides.  These  leather 
diaphragms  form  compartments,  which  perform  the  same  ser- 
vice as  those  of  the  drum  of  the  wet  meter.  The  gas  is  made  to 
enter  and  leave  these  compartments  alternately  by  means  of 
slide  valve  movements. 

The  action  in  the  dry  meter  resembles  somewhat  that  of  a 
number  of  bellows,  the  pressure  of  the  gas  causing  alternate 
inflation,  expansion,  or  filling,  and  contraction  or  discharge. 
These  expanding  and  contracting  movements  are  transferred  by 
means  of  cranks,  levers,  or  connecting  rods  to  the  wheel  work 
of  the  meter  index.  The  compartments  formed  by  the  dia- 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  151 

phragms  have  each,  when  these  are  new,  a  definite  measurable 
capacity;  in  this  way  the  quantity  of  gas  which  passes  through 
the  meter  is  recorded  in  the  meter  index. 

The  leather  partitions  or  diaphragms  are  subject  to  deteriora- 
tion: they  harden  and  sometimes  crack  after  use.  When  they 
become  less  flexible,  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  measuring  com- 
partment becomes  reduced,  and  a  meter  in  this  condition  regis- 
ters against  the  consumer.  On  the  other  hand,  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  diaphragms  become  so  badly  cracked  as  to 
have  perforations,  in  which  case  gas  may  pass  into  the  house 
pipes  without  causing  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  dia- 
phragms, or,  in  other  words,  without  being  registered  on  the 
counting  mechanism;  in  this  way  the  consumer  may  burn  con- 
siderable gas  without  having  to  pay  for  it. 

TRegarding  the  comparative  advantages  of  wet  and  dry  meters, 
the  following  may  be  said :  The  dry  meters  cost  more  to  manu- 
facture, but  are  easier  handled,  cause  less  trouble  to  the  gas 
company,  are  cheaper  to  maintain,  and  need  not  be  set  absolutely 
level.  They  require  no  water  for  their  action  and  hence  the 
danger  of  freezing  is  minimized,  though  even  dry  meters  may 
freeze  up,  in  case  a  large  amount  of  watery  vapor,  condensed 
in  the  street  pipes,  flows  into  them.  This  amount  of  condensa- 
tion is  the  same,  whatever  kind  of  meter  is  used.  Dry  meters 
also  do  not  cause  so  much  trouble  to  the  gas  company  by  reason 
of  requiring  to  be  refilled  with  water,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wet 
meters,  and  there  is  no  sudden  stopping  of  the  gas  supply, 
as  may  happen  with  the  wet  meter  when  the  float  drops.  Hence 
such  meters  would  be  preferred  by  the  consumers  if  they  had 
any  voice  in  the  matter. 

The  apparatus  for  counting  and  registering  the  number  o$ 
revolutions  or  of  reciprocating  motions  of  the  meter  is  the  same 
in  either  case.  The  interior  mechanism  of  the  dry  meter  is  more 
complicated,  more  delicate,  more  liable  to  wear  and  to  require 
repairs;  dry  meters  are  also  said  to  be  more  liable  to  corrosion. 
The  wet  meter  is  much  the  simpler  of  the  two,  has  no  valve 
mechanism  liaise  to  derangement,  and  is  more  accurate.  On 
the  whole,  however,  gas  companies  are  nearly  unanimous  in 
preferring  the  dry  meter,  and  in  the  United  States  and  in  England 
it  is  used  much  more  frequently  than  a  wet  meter. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  dry  meter  requires  a  good  deal  of 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  gas  companies.  The  dry  meter,  in 


152  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

the  author's  judgment,  is  more  liable  to  register  in  favor  of  the 
gas  company,  for  the  reason  that  the  Diaphragms  will  harden 
and  stiffen  some  time  before  they  crack.  If  cracked,  they  do 
permit  gas  to  pass  through  without  being  registered,  but  the 
gas  company's  inspector  would  find  this  out  at  the  next  meter 
reading,  whereas  he  would  not  know  when  the  diaphragms  are 
merely  stiffened  or  contracted.  The  wet  meter  is  simple  and 
more  accurate  if  properly  attended  to,  and  in  some  countries 
of  the  Continent,  such  as  Germany,  and  a  few  others,  it  still 
seems  to  be  preferred,  particularly  as  it  is  found  to  be  more 
accurate. 

Recently,  the  Sprague  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Bridge- 
port, Conn.,  has  introduced  a  new  meter,  which  is  practically 
the  first  American-made  meter  for  artificial  gas,  made  of  cast- 
iron  instead  of  tin\  The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  increased 
durability,  less  costly  repairs,  simple  and  compact  construction^ 
The  case  of  cast  iron  is  necessarily  more  durable  than  one  of 
flimsy  tin,  which  corrodes  and  rusts  quickly.  The  new  meter 
can  be  taken  apart  for  inspection  and  repairs  by  the  simple 
manipulation  of  a  screw  driver.  The  diaphragms  can  thus  be 
readily  examined  for  cracks,  and  being  made  in  one  piece  of 
leather  without  seams,  they  last  longer.  The  Sprague  meter 
also  occupies  considerably  less  space  than  an  old-fashioned  tin 
meter  of  same  capacity;  another  advantage  is  that  all  parts  of 
the  inside  mechanism  are  made  interchangeable. 

Another  new  meter,  with  a  cast-iron  body,  is  the  rotaryjneter, 
introduced  here  from  England.  It  was  invented  in  1902  by 
Thomas  Thorp,  who  also  invented  the  prepayment  meter, 
mentioned  further  on.  ^This  meter  is  manufactured  for  artificial 
as  well  as  for  natural  gas,  for  low  as  well  as  high  pressure.  Its 
working  parts  consist  of  a  turbine  wheel  with  vanes  set 
at  angles  of  45  degrees.  These  parts  are  interchangeable, 
and  can  be  easily  removed  and  examined.  The  meter  is 
not  affected  by  differences  in  temperaturej  specific  gravity,  or 
pressure. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  a  detailed  descriptiorfof  the  different 
types  of  gas  meters  made  by  manufacturers,  but  a  few  special 
kinds  deserve  a  brief  mention.  The  troubles  caused  by  the 
variation  in  the  water  level  of  wet  meters  caused  the  invention 
and  introduction  of  so-called  "  compensating  meters,"  which  are 
constructed  with  a  special  water  reservoir  within  their  case,  and 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  153 

which  have  automatic  contrivances,  by  means  of  which  a  part  of 
this  water  is  transferred  to  the  regular  water  in  the  drum  in 
order  to  make  up  for  losses  by  evaporation  or  leakage. 

Every  gas  company  has  at  the  works  a  large  meter,  which 
measures  and  records  the  total  output  of  the  works;  this  meter 
is  called  a  stationmeter.  It  is  usually  of  the  wet  meter  type, 
which  fact  might  possibly  be  interpreted  to  indicate  that  gas 
companies  consider  the  wret  meter  as  being  more  reliable  in  its 
measurements.  In  the  case  of  the  station  meter  the  fluctuations 
in  the  water  level  are  compensated  by  supplying  a  small  con- 
tinuous stream  of  water,  and  at  the  same  time  providing  a  fixed 
overflow  point,  which  prevents  the  water  from  rising  beyond  its 
normal  level.  Recently  a  rotary  dry  station  meter,  invented  by 
Thorp,  and  claimed  to  fulfil  the  three  requirements  of  accuracy, 
durability,  and  compactness  to  a  remarkable  degree,  has  been 
introduced  in  England  and  America. 

About  fifteen  years  ago  a  special  form  of  meter  called  the 
"  prepayment  meter,"  coin  or  slot  meter,  was  introduced,  and 
very,  soon  became  quite  popular,  notwithstanding  that  the  news- 
papers were  at  first  inclined  to  treat  the  innovation  in  the  nature 
of  a  joke.  In  England  alone,  there  were  said  to  be  about  2,000,000 
of  these  in  use  in  1906.  This  ingenious  type  of  meter  is  provided, 
in  addition  to  the  regular  mechanism,  with  a  special  attachment 
similar  to  the  one  found  in  the  nickel-in-the-slot  machines. 
Its  purpose  is  to  enable  small  consumers  to  obtain  a  measured, 
limited  quantity  of  gas,  equal  to  the  value  of  the  coin  deposited, 
by  a  prepayment,  made  by  dropping  the  coin  into  the  box. 
As  soon  as  this  is  done,  a  certain  volume  of  gas  is  permitted  to 
flow  into  the  house  pipes.  When  this  measured  fixed  volume  of 
gas  has  been  consumed,  the  meter  shuts  off  the  gas  automatically 
until  another  payment  is  made,  and  then  the  gas  again  begins 
to  flow.  When  the  price  of  gas  is  changed,  the  interior  mechan- 
ism of  such  meters  has  necessarily  to  be  altered  to  conform  in  the 
supply  it  yields  to  the  quantity  of  gas,  which  should  be  obtained 
for  a  definite  sum.  The  prepayment  meters  are  fairly  reliable 
in  action  but  their  use  involves  some  slight  danger,  and  some 
cases  of  asphyxiation  by  gas  have  been  caused  by  them.  For 
this  reason  they  should  never  be  placed  in  sleeping  apartments, 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  supply  burners  located  in 
bedrooms. 

In  some  cities,  gas  used  for  lighting  is  charged  at  a  different 


154  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

price  from  that  used  for  cooking,  heating,  or  power  purposes,  and 
special  forms  of  meters,  with  double  recording  mechanisms,  are 
sometimes  used. 

The  ordinary  gas  meter  does  not  register  when  the  flow  of  gas 
is  smaller  than  about  3  cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  a  smaller  flow  of 
gas,  as,  for  instance,  0.5  cubic  foot  per  hour,  might  pass  through 
the  meter  without  causing  it  to  register.  The  acetylene  gas 
burners  have  a  very  much  smaller  consumption  than  ordinary 
burners.  Accordingly,  when  town  or  village  lighting  by  central 
acetylene  plants  was  introduced,  it  became  necessary  to  manu- 
facture special  meters,  which  measure  accurately  small  volumes 
of  gas,  and  such  meters  are  used,  to  a  limited  extent,  where 
buildings  in  the  country  take  their  supply  of  gas  from  a  general 
acetylene  lighting  plant. 

The  essential  requirements  of  all  gas  meters  are  the  following : 

pthey  must  be  absolutely  tight  and  not  leak  any  gas ;  they  must 

register  fairly  accurately,  and  they  must  not  require  too  much 

pressure  of  gas  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  interior  mechanism 

or  the  stiffness  of  the  leather  diaphragmsj\ 

Gas  meters  are  manufactured  in  a  large  variety  of  sizes,  and 
they  are  designated  according  to  the  .number  of  burners  which 
they  supply,  each  burner  being  rated  at  usually  6  cubic  feet  of 
gas  per  hour.  The  smallest  size  of  meter  is  a  two-  or  three- 
burner  meter  (usually  called  two-  or  three-light  meter),  and 
the  larger  sizes  are  intended  for  5,  10,  20,  30,  45,  60,  80,  and 
100  burners,  but  meters  of  even  larger  capacity  then  these  are 
manufactured. 

In  determining  upon  the  size  of  the  meter  required,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  into  consideration  the  size  and  consumption  of  each 
lightingjDurner  and  of  each  gas  cooking  burner,  or  gas  heating 
stove.  I A  gas  meter  should  be  adequate  in  size  for  the  maximum 
consumption  for  both  lighting  and  other  purposes.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  use  a  meter  of  too  small  a  size,  as  it  must  be  obvious 
that  the  quantity  of  gas  required  cannot  be  passed  through  it 
at  the  necessary  rate,  and  hence  an  insufficient  capacity  of  the 
meter  is  often  the  cause  of  a  poor  gas  illumination.  It  is  a 
popular  fallacy  that  gas  companies  sometimes  put  in  larger 
meters  than  required  for  the  sake  of  having  a  larger  consump- 
tion registered.  This  is  evidently  an  impossibility,  for  a  meter 
can  only  register  the  exact  quantity  of  gas  which  passes  through 
it,  whether  consumed  or  wasted  by  leakage  or  otherwise.  The 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  155 

usual  sizes  of  gas  meters  used  in  dwellings  are  the  10-,  20-,  30- 
and  45-burner  meters. 

It  is  usual  to  connect  the  house  pipes  with  the  gas  meters  by 
means  of  lead  pipe  connections.  These  are  often  wrongly  bent, 
or  bent  flat,  or  kinked  in  the  process  of  bending  and  then  pass 
a  smaller  volume  per  unit  time  than  is  intended.  It  is  advisable 
to  use,  at  least  for  all  larger  meters,  only  the  ironjneter  connec- 
tions and  couplings.  The  lead  connections  are  undesirable  from 
the  point  of  view  of  safety  from  fire,  because  both  lead  and  solder 
melt  in  a  strong  heat,  and  the  escaping  gas  would  only  feed  the 
flames  of  a  fire. 

"In  most  buildings,"  says  a  writer,  "designed  for  multiple' 
tenancy,  like  great  apartment  houses  and  the  capacious  office 
buildings,  which  comprise  so  large  a  part  of  the  business  portion 
of  a  city,  it  is  customary  to  provide  a  separate  gas  meter  for  each 
room  or  suite  of  rooms.  These  meters  are  commonly  placed 
in  closets  and  out-of-the-way  corners,  and  are  very  apt  to  be 
surrounded  with  much  combustible  matter.  The  connections  of 
meters  with  the  gas  pipes  are  usually,  if  not  always,  of  lead,  a 
metal  that  is  easily  fusible,  and  the  solder  with  which  the  plates 
of  the  meter  are  joined  together  yields  even  more  readily  to 
heat.  Let  a  fire  break  out  in  a  building  containing,  as  many 
buildings  do,  a  score  or  more  of  these  fragile  fire-feeders,  and 
the  hot  air  sweeping  in  advance  of  the  fire  will  quickly  melt  the 
lead  or  solder.  The  outpouring  gas  fills  the  building  with  the 
explosive  atmosphere  which  hastens  the  spread  of  the  flames  and 
keeps  up  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fuel. "  Such  burning  of  gas 
jets,  sometimes  of  great  size,  is  to  be  seen  after  almost  every 
city  fire,  when  nothing  is  left  of  a  building  but  blackened  and 
broken  walls.  The  gas  poured  into  burning  buildings  through 
such  openings  doubtless  helps  materially  to  account  for  the  sur- 
prising suddenness  with  which  many  great  buildings  have  been 
swept  by  flames,  and  in  all  cases  the  outflow  of  gas  most  seri- 
ously counteracts,  if  it  does  not  altogether  thwart,  the  efforts 
of  firemen.  The  remedy  for  this  great  evil  is  not  so  easy  to  point 
out.  It  is  obvious  that,  where  a  multitude  of  meters  are  to  be 
distributed  through  a  building,  they  should  be  more  securely 
encased  and  provided  with  infusible  connections,  or  some  means 
should  be  devised  whereby  the  gas  supply  shall  be  automatically 
shut  off  whenever  the  temperature  rises,  so  as  to  imperil  the 
integrity  of  the  meter.  There  should  also  be  near  the  door  and 


156  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

readily  accessible  to  firemen  some  means  by  which  the  connec- 
tion of  the  house  with  the  gas  main  in  the  street  can  be  quickly 
closed. "  It  is,  perhaps,  better  to  set  all  meters  together  in  a 
special  vault,  which  should  have  ample  ventilation  to  outdoors. 

Gas  meters  should  be  located  in  a  place  where  there  is  a  uni- 
form  temperature,  neither  very  high  nor  very  low.  They  should 
neither  be  exposed  to  a  freezing  temperature  nor  to  the  direct 
rays  of  sunlight.  This  is  necessary  for  several  reasons,  one  y 
being  that  it  prevents  a  dry  meter  from  getting  out  of  order  1 
quickly  by  reason  of  the  diaphragm  hardening,  shrinking,  and  ' 
cracking.  It  is  likewise  in  the  consumer's  interest  that  a  meter 
should  not  stand  in  too  warm  a  place,  for  gas  expands  by  the 
heat,  increases  in  volume,  and  consequently  the  meter  will 
-register  " fast."  The  standard  temperature  for  meters  is  taken 
usually  at  60°  Fahrenheit,  and  when  the  temperature  of  the 
room  is  much  higher,  a  fixed  volume  of  gas  will  be  registered 
higher  in  proportion  to  the  raise  in  the  temperature.  This 
means  that  the  consumer  pays  for  more  gas  than  he  actually 
consumes.  The  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  causes,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  a  scant  measurement,  and  this  is 
another  reason  why  a  warm  place  should  be  avoided.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  rule,  in  locating  a  meter,  to  avoid  the  proximity  of 
the  furnace,  the  steam  boilers,  and  of  the  steam  pipes.  As 
heat  ascends,  and  accumulates  at  the  highest  point,  a  place 
near  the  ceiling  is  particularly  objectionable  and  dangerous  in 
case  of  fire. 

-  A  very  cold  place  is  equally  undesirable,  for  a  wet  meter 
would  freeze,  but  even  with  the  dry  meter  the  moisture  in  the 
gas  condenses,  fills  the  meter  with  water,  and  then  the  water 
may  freeze;  moreover,  the  leather  diaphragm  is  apt  to  get  hard 
and  cease  to  work.  This  condensation  of  watery  vapor  occurs 
whenever  the  gas  meter  or  the  house  service  is  colder  than  the 
protected  street  main.  The  fact  that  a  dry  meter  has  water 
in  it  may  be  noticed  by  the  jumping  of  the  gas  flames.  It  is  also 
a  notable  fact  that  gas  subject  to  a  low  temperature  deteriorates 
in  illuminating  power.  In  dry  meters  the  leather  diaphragms 
become  stiff  from  the  cold  and  cease  to  work  properly.  When 
in  wet  meters  the  water  freezes  the  drum  ceases  to  revolve. 

Owing  to  its  moderate  temperature,  and  for  other  reasons,  the 
cellar  of  the  house  is  usually  chosen  as  the  place  for  the  gas 
meter.  It  should  not  be  set  in  a  dark,  out-of-the-way  corner, 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  157 

where  its  reading  is  accomplished  with  difficulty,  nor  under 
the  cold  air  duct,  nor  anywhere  where  it  may  be  accidentally 
injured.  The  meter  should  be  set  level,  and  at  such  a  height 
that  the  index  can  be  properly  read.  It  should  be  isolated 
from  fire,  frost,  dampness,  and  be  kept  away  from  electric 
wires.  The  meter  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust 
and  the  glass  over  the  index  should  be  frequently  cleaned  to 
enable  the  accurate  reading  of  the  meter.  It  is  best  to  choose 
in  a  cellar  an  easily  accessible  well-lighted  place,  which  is  dry, 
cool,  without  draft,  and  where  the  meter  would  not  be 
affected  by  the  vibration  due  to  passing  vehicles.  If  meters 
are  located  where  they  are  unduly  exposed,  they  should  be 
protected  against  injury. 

All  dry  meters  last  longer  and  better  if  continually  kept  in 
use.  The  impurities  in  the  gas  are  the  principal  causes  of  the 
wearing  out  of  meters;  thus  the  tar  stiffens  the  diaphragms  and 
clogs  the  valve  movements,  the  ammonia  causes  the  diaphragms 
to  rot,  and  in  the  wet  meter  it  may  cause  rust  holes,  the  result 
being  that  gas  passes  through  unrecorded. 

In  a  new  gas  meter  all  dial  hands  point  to  zero.  The  index 
of  a  connected  meter  begins  to  register  as  soon  as  gas  passes 
through  it,  whether  consumed,  or  wasted,  or  leaking.  When 
all  the  burners -in  the  house  are  shut  off,  the  hands  of  the  meter 
should  stand  still,  provided  the  pipe  system  is  tight. 

Householders  should  practice  reading  the  meter  index  which 
is  easily  learned,*  and  they  should  keep  a  record  of  the  readings. 
It  is  advisable  to  read  the  meter  at  least  once  a  week  and  oftener 
if  a  careless  use  or  waste  of  gas  in  the  house  is  suspected.  If 
possible,  the  meter  should  be  read  on  the  day  when  the  gas 
inspector  calls.  All  this  will  give  the  consumer  an  opportunity 
to  check  the  monthly  bill,  for  a  very  little  figuring  will  enable 
anyone  to  tell  exactly  how  much  or  how  little  gas  he  has  been 
using. 

The  small  or  top  circle  of  the  meter  index  is  not  read  in 
taking  the  meter's  registration.  This  circle  is  usually  sub- 
divided into  single  cubic  feet,  and  it  is  useful  in  testing  the  con- 
sumption of  a  burner,  or  of  a  gas  cooker,  or  other  gas  appliance. 
Its  principal  use  is  to  discover  that  there  is  a  leak.  The  reading 
of  the  meter  is  also  useful  in  helping  to  discover  when  a  meter 
has  got  out  of  order. 

*  See  Gerhard,  Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting.     Science  Series  No.  111. 


158  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

In  Europe,  the  accuracy  of  gas  meters  is  tested  and  attested 
by  an  official  commission.  Meters  are  stamped  " correct"  in 
England  when  they  do  not  vary  from  the  true  measure  more 
than  2  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  company,  and  3  per  cent  in  favor 
of  the  consumer.  In  the  United  States,  gas  meters,  after  being 
first  adjusted  by  the  manufacturers,  are  tested  by  state  inspec- 
tors. While  on  the  one  hand  we  find  a  considerable  distrust 
of  the  gas  meter  by  the  public,  we  find  on  the  other  hand  that 
gas  companies  and  gas  engineers  are  apt  to  exaggerate  the  claims 
for  their  accuracy.  The  statement  of  a  practical  gas  engineer, 
which  I  found  in  a  book  on  gas  lighting,  that  "the  gas  meter 
is  an  almost  infallible  instrument  with  accuracy  greater  than 
almost  any  other  measuring  machine"  is  absurd  and  not  true. 
Like  all  other  machines,  gas  meters  are  not  absolutely  accurate, 
but  they  are  as  a  rule  fairly  correct,  as  numerous  tests  indicate, 
and  when  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  gas  meters  are 
cheaply  manufactured  and  are  subject  to  wear  and  to  deterio- 
ration much  more  than  other  measuring  machines,  it  may  be 
truly  stated  that  their  accuracy  is  on  the  whole  quite  satisfactory. 
As  we  have  seen  above,  this  accuracy  changes  in  time;  in  the 
wet  meter,  except  it  has  a  compensating  reservoir  or  is  refilled, 
the  accuracy  of  registration  changes  against  the  company;  with 
dry  meters,  when  the  diaphragm  has  begun  to  harden,  the  stroke 
is  shortened,  and  the  accuracy  changes  against  the  consumer, 
because  the  meter  goes  fast,  but  if  cracks  appear  and  allow  the 
gas  to  pass  through,  the  gas  company  loses. 

Meters  are  tested  by  passing  a  certain  measured  number  of 
cubic  feet  of  gas  through  them  and  comparing  the  amount  regis- 
tered on  the  dials  with  the  known  quantity  passed  through. 

The  author  has  searched  vainly  for  any  records  of  experi- 
ments giving  the  comparative  accuracy  of  wet  and  dry  meters 
as  ascertained  by  such  testing.  Such  experiments  would, 
however,  at  this  date,  have  largely  a  theoretical  interest,  for 
the  reason  that  wet  gas  meters  have  gone  almost  entirely  out 
of  use,  at  least  in  the  United  States.  It  is  to  be  assumed,  there- 
fore, that  any  reports  published  in  this  country  on  the  testing 
of  meters  refer  to  the  dry  meters  only. 

Some  years  ago,  the  State  Inspector  of  gas  meters  in  Ohio 
tested  2122  old  meters;  out  of  this  number  he  found  34  per 
cent  registering  fast,  55.7  per  cent  registering  slow,  and  12.5 
per  cent  registering  correct.  Eighteen  meters  failed  to  register. 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories 


159 


The  average  rate  of  the  fast  meters  was  2.88  per  cent,  and  that 
of  the  slow  meters  was  2.76  per  cent.  The  total  average  error 
was  0.47  per  cent  slow. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  by  the  State  Inspector  of  Meters 
for  Massachusetts,  who  tested  11,309  meters,  of  which  only  148 
failed  to  come  within  the  3  per  cent  error  against  the  company; 
85  averaged  4.50  per  cent  against  consumers. 

In  another  test  made  in  Massachusetts  on  1917  suspected 
meters, 

671  were  found  to  be  2  per  cent  fast; 
950  less  than  2  per  cent ; 
278  were  more  than  2  per  cent  slow; 
18  did  not  register  at  all. 

The  average  error  in  this  case  was  0.35  per  cent  fast. 

"Complaint  meters"  are  those,  which,  while  being  in  use,  are 
suspected  of  registering  incorrectly. 

According  to  a  report  by  Charles  W.  Hinman,  State  Gas 
Inspector  of  Massachusetts,  231  complaint  meters,  nearly  all 
of  which  were  dry  meters,  were  tested  in  1891.  Of  these,  52 
were  found  too  fast,  with  an  average  error  of  4.74  per  cent; 
144  were  found  within  the  legal  limit,  2  per  cent  fast  or  slow; 
34  were  found  too  slow,  the  average  error  being  10  per  cent; 
1  meter  did  not  register.  Mr.  Hinman  compiled  the  following 
interesting  table,  extending  over  20  years: 


Year. 

Fast  Meters. 

Number 
of 
Correct 
Meters. 

Slow  Meters. 

Total 

Percent- 
age of 
Error. 

Fast  or 
Slow. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

1872 

87 

4.30 

81 

32 

9.55 

202 

0.32 

Fast 

1873 

100 

5.43 

95 

40 

6.61 

238 

1.18 

Fast 

1874 

101 

4.76 

131 

51 

6.22 

285 

0.57 

Fast 

1875 

123 

5.99 

142 

39 

8.17 

314 

1.33 

Fast 

1876 

148 

5.19 

179 

53 

9.17 

381 

0.74 

Fast 

1877 

93 

4.79 

125 

34 

11.00 

257 

0.28 

Fast 

1878 

111 

5.34 

180 

44 

9.51 

343 

0.63 

Fast 

1879 

83 

5.00 

91 

18 

16.20 

193 

0.64 

Fast 

1880 

48 

4.54 

52 

22 

6.59 

122 

0.52 

Fast 

1881 

41 

5.68 

72 

28 

6.44 

141 

0.33 

Fast 

1882 

41 

4.10 

62 

21 

11.30 

127 

0.43 

Slow 

1883 

11 

4.25 

15 

12 

13.12 

38 

2.76 

Slow 

1884 

51 

4.22 

100 

25 

5.02 

176 

0.58 

Fast 

1885 

44 

5.09 

74 

21 

11.50 

139 

0.08 

Slow 

1886 

38 

4.55 

64 

22 

12.43 

124 

0.79 

Slow 

1887 

23 

4.29 

63 

8 

5.69 

94 

0.62 

Fast 

1888 

56 

5.22 

109 

17 

8.71 

182 

0.82 

Fast 

1889 

42 

5.65 

121 

16 

15.41 

179 

0.05 

Slow 

1890 

64 

5.32 

134 

20 

23.60 

218 

0.60 

Slow 

1891 

52 

4.74 

144 

34 

10.03 

230 

0.41 

Slow 

160  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

He  calls  attention  to  the  increased  proportion  of  correct 
meters,  which  shows  a  gradual  improvement  in  their  accuracy. 
During  the  first  five  years,  44  per  cent  were  found  to  be  cor- 
rect, during  the  next  10  years  50  per  cent,  during  the  last  five 
years  64  per  cent. 

In  1903,  1200  complaint  meters  were  inspected,  of  which  5 
did  not  register,  while  the  1195  meters  had  an  average  error  of 
1.28  per  cent  fast.  45.1  per  cent  of  the  total  number  were 
fast,  the  average  error  being  10  per  cent,  while  44.6  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  were  correct  (i.e.,  not  over  2  per  cent  fast  or 
slow). 

In  1906,  the  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Commissioners  of  Massa- 
chusetts reported  the  testing  of  424  complaint  meters.  Of 
these  — 

6  meters  passed  gas  without  registering ; 
1  meter  passed  no  gas; 

1  meter  passed  gas,  and  registered  155-305  per  cent  slow. 
Omitting  these  8  very  defective  meters  of  the  416,  the  average 
error  was  1.82  per  cent  fast. 

212  or  51.2  per  cent  were  fast,  average  error  4.82  per  cent. 

25  or  6.01  per  cent  were  slow,  average  error  7.4  per  cent. 

178  or  42.79  per  cent  were  correct  (no  more  than  2  per  cent 

fast  or  slow). 
Of  the  fast  meters  — 

143  registered  2  to  5  per  cent  fast ; 
63  registered  5  to  10  per  cent  fast ; 
5  registered  10  to  15  per  cent  fast; 
1  registered  17  per  cent  fast. 

Of  the  slow  meters  — 

14  registered  2  to  5  per  cent  slow ; 
8  registered  5  to  10  per  cent  slow; 
1  registered  14  per  cent  slow; 
1  registered  30  per  cent  slow; 
1  registered  35  per  cent  slow. 

Out  of  187  complaint  gas  meters,  tested  in  Brooklyn  some 
years  ago, 
21  were  found  to  be  correct 

f  ,     c          .,,    (  3  more  than  10  per  cent. 

114  were  found  to  be  fast,  with  L0  , 

e  0  ,  •[  42  between  3  and  10  per  cent, 

an  average  error  of  3  per  cent 

169  less  than  3  per  cent. 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas- Meter  Stories  161 

52  were  found  to  be  slow,  with  c  0  more  than  10  per  cent. 

an  average  error  of  2J  per  j  13  between  3  and  10  per  cent. 

cent.  139  less  than  3  per  cent. 

As  a  rule,  more  meters  are  found  to  be  fast  than  slow,  yet 
regarding  serious  errors  the  opposite  is  true.  In  Massachusetts, 
any  gas  consumer  may  have  his  meter  tested ;  if  it  is  found  to 
register  correctly,  or  within  the  allowed  error,  the  consumer  has 
to  pay  the  cost  of  the  test;  if  found  to  be  incorrect,  the  con- 
sumer is  furnished  with  a  new  tested  meter.  In  New  York 
City,  every  gas  company  is  required  by  law  to  keep  on  their 
premises  an  apparatus  for  testing  meters.  Any  consumer  has 
a  right  to  request  that  his  meter  be  tested,  and  should  it  be 
found  to  be  slow  or  correct,  he  has  to  pay  a  reasonable  fee  for 
the  removal,  the  testing,  and  the  replacing  of  the  meter. 

It  is  of  importance  that  all  State  gas-meter  inspectors  should 
be  in  the  service  of  the  State,  and  they  should  not  receive  their 
salary  or  any  fees  from  gas  companies. 

A  greater  accuracy  in  the  records  of  meters  would  doubtless 
be  secured  if  the  meters  were  tested  periodically,  but  gas  com- 
panies, as  a  rule,  neglect  to  do  this.  Consumers  may  test  their 
own  meter  on  the  premises  by  obtaining  a  so-called  test  burner, 
known  and  regulated  to  burn  a  certain  volume  of  gas  per  hour 
under  a  constant  pressure.  Such  volumetric  burners  may  be 
constructed  and  adjusted  accurately  if  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  gas  is  known. 

Regarding  the  period  of  usefulness  of  a  gas  meter,  this  depends 
somewhat  on  the  care  taken  at  the  gas  works  in  purifying 
the  gas.  If  the  purification  is  well  carried  out,  the  gas  meter 
will  sometimes  remain  accurate  for  ten  or  fifteen  years. 

Gas  bills  are  made  out  from  the  monthly  readings  of  the  meter, 
and  their  size  or  amount  depends  solely  upon  the  quantity  of  gas 
consumed.  Unless  the  meter  inspector  reads  the  meter  wrongly, 
or  purposely  makes  false  entries,  the  bills  should  be  approxi- 
mately correct.  A  mere  error  in  the  reading  of  the  meter 
corrects  itself  on  the  next  monthly  bill.  When  the  gas  bill 
rendered  appears  to  the  consumer  to  be  unusually  large,  there 
must  be  some  good  reason,  and  some  satisfactory  explanation  can 
usually  be  found.  Before  questioning  the  accuracy  of  the  bill 
the  consumer  should  try  to  remember  whether  there  has  been 
more  than  the  usual  company  in  the  house,  whether  there  was 
sickness  requiring  a  greater  amount  of  light,  or  perhaps  gas  used 


162  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

at  extraordinary  hours  for  preparing  patients7  meals  or  warm- 
ing water  for  a  bath.  He  should  also  try  to  remember  what  the 
weather  was,  whether  the  same  was  not  unusually  dark  or  cold, 
for  if  so  more  gas  must  have  been  used  for  lighting  and  for 
warming  by  means  of  gas  heaters  and  gas  logs.  Consider  also 
any  other  possible  occurrences  which  might  help  to  explain  the 
bill.  As  a  last  resort,  bring  a  complaint  at  the  company's 
office.  If  the  company's  officers  are  considerate  and  anxious  to 
keep  a  customer,  they  will  help  him  to  find  either  the  error  or 
the  cause  of  the  increased  bill.  Mistakes  may  and  do  happen, 
and  the  gas  company's  clerks  should  be  careful  not  to  offend  a 
consumer,  but  they  should  cheerfully  and  courteously  correct 
an  error  when  found. 

Concerning  gas  complaints,  the  following  extract  from  the 
annual  report  of  the  inspector  of  gas  meters  and  illuminating  gas 
of  the  City  of  Boston,  dated,  January,  1899,  is  of  interest: 

"As  usual,  there  have  been  complaints  received  of  large  gas  bills, 
which  to  the  consumer  were  unaccountable;  in  such  cases  a  little  time 
devoted  to  reading  the  meter  and  looking  after  the  burners  might  satisfy 
the  consumer. 

"  It  ought  to  be  a  common  acquirement  to  read  a  gas  meter,  and  for  this 
purpose  meters  should  be  set  in  light,  easily  accessible  places,  and  not 
higher  than  six  feet.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to  read  a  meter,  as  it  is  only 
necessary  to  read,  from  left  to  right,  the  figures,  which  the  hands  have 
passed.  Adding  two  ciphers  to  these  figures  gives  the  reading  in  cubic 
feet;  subtracting  from  this  reading  the  previous  one  gives  the  amount  of 
gas  that  has  passed  in  the  interval. 

"The  gas  meter  has  no  power  of  itself  to  register;  it  cannot  register 
unless  gas  goes  through  it;  if  gas  goes  through  the  meter,  the  gas  must 
be  either  leaking,  unconsumed,  through  the  fixtures  or  pipes,  or  be  burn- 
ing, either  economically  or  wastefully. 

"  By  keeping  account  of  the  number  of  burners  and  number  of  hours 
used  day  by  day,  the  monthly  amount  of  gas  can  be  estimated,  if  the 
gas  consumed  per  hour  by  each  burner  is  known.  To  find  this,  the  same 
experiment  or  testing  hand  is  used,  and  the  time  to  make  a  revolution  of 
two  or  more  feet  is  noted,  and  the  rate  per  hour  calculated.  It  is  a  most 
satisfactory  method  of  checking  the  amount  of  gas  used  to  read  the  meter 
at  regular  intervals,  as  daily  or  weekly,  thus  keeping  track  of  the  rate  at 
which  the  gas  is  being  used  and  registered." 

Many  of  the  popular  fallacies  on  gas  lighting,  spoken  of  in 
Chapter  II,  concern  the  gas  meter  and  its  registration,  so  that  a 
few  words  only  may  be  devoted  to  this  subject.  " Consumers," 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  163 

says  Progressive  Age,  "  cannot  understand  what  causes  their 
bills  to  vary,  and  many  understand  it  on  no  other  hypothesis 
except  that  the  '  confounded  old  meter/  being  the  child  of  the 
company,  is  naturally  in  league  with  it.  Else,  why  should  one 
quarter's  bills  be  larger  than  another  when  the  same  amount 
of  gas  has  been  burned,  as  far  as  the  consumer  can  see?  " 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  gas  meter  of  larger  size  than 
required  will  lead  to  a  larger  consumption  of  gas.  Meters,  no 
matter  what  their  size  or  capacity,  only  register  the  volume  of 
gas  which  passes  through  them.  It  is  the  opinion  of  experienced 
gas  men  and  of  the  author  that  a  large  meter  does  its  work  more 
easily  and  steadily,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  sometimes  used. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a  meter  is  chosen  too  small,  the  supply  of 
gas  in  a  house  will  be  insufficient,  and  the  effect  will  be  apparent 
both  at  the  lighting  flames  and  at  the  heating  and  cooking 
appliances. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  gas  bills  are  made  out  regardless 
of  the  amount  of  gas  consumed.  The  popular  belief  that  a  gas 
company  likes  to  render  a  large  bill  is  a  mistake,  for  it  is  to  the 
interest  of  the  gas  company  to  have  the  consumer  pleased  and 
satisfied,  and  this  they  are  much  more  apt  to  accomplish  when 
the  bill  rendered  is  reasonable.  Too  high  gas  bills  drive  some 
customers  to  the  use  of  electricity  where  this  is  available,  or  to  a 
change  in  the  gas  service  where  there  are  two  or  more  companies 
in  the  same  street.  <I  do  not  refer  to  New  York  City,  where  the 
several  gas  companies  have  now  combined.) 

It  is  a  popular  error  to  think  that  a  meter  index  moves  at  the 
will  of  the  company;  this  is  absurd,  for  the  dials  cannot  move 
except  when  gas  passes  through  the  meter.  The  statement  that 
increased  gas  pressure  makes  a  meter  go  round  faster,  and  hence 
causes  exorbitant  bills,  is  often  met  with.  It  is  true,  in  a  sense, 
because  more  gas  is  delivered  under  a  higher  pressure,  but  the 
consumer  can  and  should  regulate  his  pressure,  and,  if  he 
does  this,  the  effect  of  an  increased  pressure  on  consumption  is 
neutralized. 

Where  both  dry  and  wet  meters  are  used,  the  popular  fallacy 
is  often  met  with  that  the  dry  meter  registers  more  correctly 
than  the  wet  meter,  or  vice  versa.  Of  course,  if  both  are  kept 
in  working  order  and  periodically  tested,  one  kind  is  as  good  as 
another  as  far  as  accuracy  goes. 

Various  circumstances  occur  in  connection  with  gas  meters 


164  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

which  appear  at  first  right  mysterious  and  give  rise  to  complaints 
about  "  the  vagaries  of  gas  meters."  One  instance  of  this  kind 
is  when  a  connected  gas  meter  persists  in  registering  a  large 
consumption  though  all  the  burners  in  the  house  are  turned  off. 
Another  example  is  that  of  the  gas  bills  of  persons,  who  after 
being  absent  for  a  length  of  time,  find  on  their  return  a  bill 
showing  that  gas  had  been  burned.  As  a  rule,  investigation 
will  show  that  some  gas  burners  had  been  accidentally  left  lit 
during  the  absence  of  the  owner.  Mysterious  gas  bills  are  some- 
times explained  by  gas  leaks  at  the  fixtures  or  in  the  piping,  and 
at  other  times  the  servants  in  a  house  may,  without  the  owner's 
knowledge,  burn  gas  in  an  extravagant  manner. 

I  introduce  in  the  following  a  number  of  "  gas-meter  stories  " 
gathered  from  various  sources  and  nearly  all  based  upon  actual 
experiences  of  gas  inspectors  or  superintendents.  These  stories 
will  tend  to  explain  the  above-mentioned  occurrences  and  will 
also,  it  is  believed,  assist  in  establishing  faith  in  the  apparatus 
used  for  measuring  the  consumption  of  gas. 


GAS-METER  STORIES. 

No.  1.  A  gentleman,  well  known  in  the  gas  world,  having  commenced 
business,  was  anxious  to  economize  in  every  possible  manner;  his  con- 
sumption of  gas  exceeded  considerably  what  he  estimated  it  should  be, 
so  he  resolved  to  test  his  meter  during  the  night.  To  his  surprise  the 
following  morning,  although  all  the  lights  were  turned  off,  he  found  that 
300  cubic  feet  had  passed  the  meter.  The  experiment  was  repeated  two 
or  three  times  with  the  same  result,  and  without  the  slightest  odor  of 
gas  on  the  premises.  Puzzled  beyond  description,  and  knowing  that,  if 
the  meter  indicated,  the  gas  must  have  passed,  he  examined  all  gas-fittings. 
Outside  the  attic  window  he  found  a  pipe  which  conveyed  the  gas  to  a 
room  below,  cut  as  with  a  chisel.  From  this  aperture  the  gas  had  escaped 
for  months.  Of  course,  the  escape  being  outside  the  house  was  not 
detected  by  the  odor,  and  would  probably  have  continued  for  years.  If 
the  cause  had  not  been  discovered,  it  would  have  been  numbered  among 
the  vagaries  of  gas  meters. 

No.  2.  Enormously  heavy  gas  bills  were  presented  quarterly  to  a 
gentleman,  to  which  he  protested  as  utterly  impossible,  and  refused  to 
pay.  The  meter  indicated  incessantly  night  and  day.  All  the  pipes 
throughout  the  house  were  examined  —  the  flooring  being  taken  up  for 
the  purpose  —  but  no  signs  of  escape  or,  odor  were  found,  and  still  the 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  165 

meter  went  on.  The  engineer  of  the  company  was  then  referred  to  to 
solve  the  difficulty;  and  as  he  knew  it  could  only  arise  from  an  escape, 
and  the  loss  was  considerable,  he  had  every  foot  of  gas  pipe,  that  was 
embedded  in  the  walls,  uncovered.  At  last,  to  the  surprise  of  all,  immedi- 
ately over  the  mantlepiece  and  at  the  back  of  the  looking  glass,  a  small 
pipe  was  found  carried  directly  into  the  chimney,  where  the  gas  escaped 
without  giving  any  odor.  This  had  been  done  by  some  malevolent 
workman. 

Xo.  3.  It  is  not  only  from  escapes  that  such  incidents  arise,  for  many 
years  ago  an  inspector  went  to  take  the  index  of  a  meter  at  an  establish- 
ment, and  on  stating  the  quantity  consumed  the  owner  protested  that  no 
gas  had  been  burnt,  that  it  was  a  fraud,  and  that  he  would  not  pay. 
The  following  quarter  the  same  inspector  went  for  the  same  purpose, 
when  he  was  asked  blandly  the  question, "  How  much  have  I  burned  this 
quarter  ?  "  "None,"  was  the  reply.  "  None,"  said  the  proprietor,  "  then 
I  have  more  faith  in  your  meter  than  in  the  word  of  my  servant;  for  I 
took  away  the  key  of  the  main,  and  only  replaced  it  when  I  knew  you 
were  here."  The  servant  had  been  in  the  habit  of  burning  the  gas  in 
the  absence  of  the  master,  but  denied  it. 

No.  4.  A  gentleman  and  his  family  who  had  occupied  a  "  flat,"  shut 
their  house  and  left  to  visit  some  friends  in  a  distant  part  of  the  country. 
At  the  end  of  six  months  they  returned.  A  few  days  afterward  the  gas 
company  sent  in  a  heavy  account  —  indeed,  for  a  much  larger  quantity 
of  gas  than  would  have  been  consumed  had  they  remained  in  their  home. 
The  gentleman,  believing  it  be  to  an  error,  went  to  the  gas  office  and 
showed  the  receipt  for  gas  consumed  up  to  the  day  of  his  departure,  but 
was  informed  that  the  account  was  for  gas  consumed  since  then.  "  But," 
said  he,  "  we  have  been  away  all  the  time,  and  the  house  shut  up;  con- 
sequently no  gas  could  possibly  have  been  required."  This  was  met  by 
the  reply  that  the  meter  indicated  that  the  gas  had  been  consumed,  and 
that  he  must  pay.  This  certainly  appeared  a  vagary  of  the  meter  to 
which  no  explanation  could  be  given  or  reason  assigned.  The  gentleman, 
much  exasperated  at  the  apparent  extortion  of  the  gas  company,  went 
home  and  informed  his  wife  of  the  circumstance,  when  she,  after  a  little 
hesitation,  said:  "  Well,  now  I  remember;  how  very  silly  of  me;  just  as  I 
was  on  the  point  of  leaving  I  returned  for  something  I  had  forgotten,  and 
lighted  the  gas  to  get  it  and  omitted  to  turn  it  off  again."  The  gas  had 
been  constantly  alight  during  the  six  months,  and  was  of  course  indicated 
by  the  meter. 

No.  5.  Mr.  X,  a  merchant,  converted  some  time  ago  from  electricity 
to  gas  complained  of  high  gas  bills.  The  meter  was  read  again  and 
again,  the  second  reading  developed  no  error,  and  the  consumer  was  still 


166  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

unsatisfied,  so  the  meter  was  tested.  In  case  the  meter  was  "  fast  " 
proper  allowance  was  to  be  made,  but  the  meter  on  test  showed  to  be  correct, 
and  Mr.  X.  said  "  don't  care  what  the  meter  says."  The  meter  was  read 
daily  and  a  postal  card  sent  the  owner  showing  each  day's  consumption, 
meanwhile  advising  economy  but  not  pressing  collection.  This  course 
was  followed  for  a  year  and  the  gentleman  was  k,ept  as  a  customer. 
Such  a  course  is  troublesome,  and  the  foreman  or  meter  reader  may  call 
Mr.  X.  (and  truthfully)  "  a  blamed  crank/'  but  there  is  a  pleasure  in 
handling  successfully  such  a  case  and  bringing  the  objector  to  practically 
disavow  his  spoken  objections. 

No.  6.  Mr.  Y.,  another  merchant,  used  gas  at  his  residence.  During 
the  summer,  while  the  family  were  all  away  except  a  woman  left  in  charge, 
the  house  bill  instead  of  decreasing  showed  a  marked  increase.  This 
case  could  be  diagnosed  by  the  gentleman's  own  statement.  The  care- 
taker, a  poor,  little,  lone,  frightened  woman,  worrying  through  sleepless 
nights  and  in  fear  of  her  life,  kept  three  or  four  jets  lighted  for  company 
and  protection.  Fearful  of  reproof,  she  would  not,  when  the  bill  came 
in,  acknowledge  the  facts,  and  Mr.  Y.,  having  known  her  as  a  faithful 
and  truthful  servant,  could  not  doubt  her  word.  The  Gas  Company  was 
obliged  to  collect  the  amount  called  for  by  the  bill.  Mr.  Y.  acknowledged 
that  the  company  had  at  least  seemed  to  try  to  be  fair,  and  that  possibly 
the  cause  for  the  trouble  had  been  in  his  household. 

A  newspaper  contributor  some  time  ago  described  in  rhyme  a  case  of 
this  kind,  as  follows: 

"TWO   SIDES   TO  IT." 

"  How  sweet  to  roam  by  the  sad  sea  waves, 

While  no  cares  your  mind  harass, 
And  what  joy  to  think  as  you  watch  the  stars, 

That  you  are  paying  no  bill  for  gas! 
But,  oh,  what  grief  when  you  travel  home 

And  the  meter  your  sad  eyes  meet : 
You  find  that  the  cook  has  been  holding  soirees 

And  has  burned  ten  million  feet." 

No.  7.  Mr.  YY.,  a  wealthy  business  man  of  standing  in  the  community 
and  prominent  in  a  church,  pays  promptly,  seldom  complains,  and  hence 
is  one  of  the  great  and  good  majority  who  rarely  come  especially  to 
notice  in  a  gas  company's  office.  After  the  price  of  gas  was  reduced, 
Mr.  YY.  expressed  the  opinion  that,  instead  of  reducing  the  price  of  gas, 
it  would  have  been  better  to  improve  its  quality,  which,  at  his  home,  had 
for  some  time  been  poor.  This  was  the  first  intimation  of  his  having  been 
dissatisfied,  and  a  letter  was  written  him  thanking  him  for  having  men- 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  167 

tioned  it,  stating  that  the  gas  was  of  good  quality  and  that  his  trouble 
must  be  entirely  local.  In  a  day  or  two  he  came  to  the  office  and,  after 
a  pleasant  talk,  it  was  concluded  that  the  fault  in  his  light  was  from  want 
of  pressure  due  to  the  clogging  up  of  a  rather  old  service  pipe.  A  remedy 
was  promised  to  him  and  his  service  pipe  renewed.  After  the  service 
was  relaid  the  light,  of  course,  became  good. 

No.  8.  Mr.  ZZ.  keeps  a  small  restaurant  and  pays  gas  bills  weekly. 
He  works  hard,  and  with  the  assistance  of  wife  and  family,  is  trying  to 
get  on  in  the  world.  As  he  is  kept  awake  until  late  every  night  and 
rises  early  in  the  morning,  he  is,  when  he  calls  to  pay  his  little  bill,  apt 
to  be  crusty  and  faultfinding,  and  inclined  to  quit  gas  and  use  oil.  His 
daily  experience,  with  some  who  would  sell  him  bad  eggs  for  fresh,  rank 
butter  for  gilt-edged,  or  cheat  him  regarding  other  food  supplies  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  with  those  who  try  to  pay  a  twenty-five  cent 
check  with  a  dime,  or  try  to  forget  to  pay  at  all,  makes  him  suspicious  of 
all,  even  of  the  gas  company.  But,  by  patience  with  his  complaints, 
and  attention  when  necessary,  reading  his  meter  every  day  for  a  while, 
and  then  teaching  him  to  read  it  himself,  and  keeping  him  well  supplied 
with  burners  and  tips,  he  has  been  kept  a  consumer  and  taught  to  believe 
in  the  gas  company. 

Xo.  9.  Xo  man  can  please  everybody,  and  some  folks  are  best  pleased 
in  being  displeased,  so  there  are  sometimes  "  kickers  "  who  refuse  to  be 
reformed.  For  example,  Mr.  X.Y.Z.  is  a  learned  and  estimable  gentle- 
man, with  a  character  .in  many  respects  lovely  and  lovable,  but  his 
monthly  payments  for  gas  are  invariably  accompanied  by  some  caustic 
comment  or  expression  of  distrust.  He  stated  that  owing  to  his  resi- 
dence being  out  of  the  electric  company's  territory,  and  owing  to  his 
wife's  fear  of  kerosene,  he  is  obliged  to  use  gas,  and,  in  general,  has,  up  to 
date,  refused  to  be  placated.  He  surely  does  the  gas  company  no  good 
among  his  friends,  but  even  he  has  not  been  given  up,  and  if  he  lived  long 
enough,  the  gas  company  would  find  an  opportunity  to  show  him  that 
it  is  not  as  black  as  he  thinks. 

No.  10.  A  large  house  had  for  more  than  a  year  been  unoccupied  and 
shut  up,  so  that  the  meter  could  not  be  seen  for  reading.  At  last  the 
house  was  rented,  the  new  tenants  moved  in,  and  the  state  of  the  meter 
was  taken.  Compared  with  the  last  reading  it  called  for  a  bill  of  nearly 
$20,  which  was  duly  presented  to  the  owner.  As  the  last  bill  had  been 
paid  up  to  the  day  the  previous  tenant  had  moved  out,  it  showed  some- 
thing wrong,  for  investigation  showed  no  leak.  The  owner  happened  to 
be  a  large  holder  of  gas  stock,  so  he  went  quietly  to  the  office  and  read 
somebody  a  lecture  none  the  less  emphatically  indignant  from  being,  so 


168  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

to  speak,  sub  rosa.  The  matter  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  inspector, 
who  gave  it  extended  and  exceedingly  puzzled  attention.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  he  at  length  found  out  that  four  months' gas  had  been  burned 
in  an  upper  room  by  a  party  of  "  crap  "  players,  who  had  obtained 
entrance  through  a  rear  door,  a  panel  of  which  they  had  broken  out. 
The  bill  was  paid  without  further  protest  against  the  meter  or  the  com- 
pany. Suppose  the  "  crap  "  players  had  not  been  discovered  ?  The 
meter  would  have  been  charged  with  inaccuracy,  or  the  company  with 
dishonesty. 

No.  11.  In  a  double  house,  one  half  only  had  been  piped  for  gas  when 
the  house  was  built,  while  the  other  half  was  piped  some  years  after- 
wards, by  simply  extending  into  it  the  pipes  from  the  other  half.  This 
made  the  gas  for  both  houses  pass  through  one  meter,  and  the  plan 
worked  all  right  as  long  as  the  original  owner  retained  the  property  and 
attended  to  the  paying  of  the  gas  bills.  After  a  time  the  property 
changed  hands  and  was  rented.  The  tenants  in  both  houses  began  to 
use  gas,  but  one  found  that  his  bills  were  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  gas  he  consumed.  He  even  found  that  his  bills  would  come 
in  just  the  same,  whether  he  used  any  gas  or  not.  He  thought  he  had  a 
clear  case  of  robbery  against  the  company;  but  an  investigation  was 
instituted  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  that  his  neighbor  had  all  the 
time  been  enjoying  the  gas  lighting  at  his  expense. 


No.  12.  The  following  story  is  introduced,  not  to  explain  the  mysteri- 
ous reading  of  meters,  but  to  show  how  some  people  get  into  the  habit  of 
distrusting  any  bill  rendered  by  a  gas  company,  and  how  they  become 
accustomed  to  question  its  accuracy.  In  Bradford,  England,  an  old  man 
was  about  to  step  in  front  of  a  steam  tram  going  at  full  speed,  when  a  hand 
seized  him  and  flung  him  back.  It  was  a  narrow  shave,  and  as  soon  as 
the  old  man  realized  it  he  exclaimed:  "  You  have  saved  my  life,  and  I 
can  never  repay  the  debt."  "I  deserve  no  thanks,"  was  the  modest 
reply.  "-But  you  deserve  my  thanks,  I  am  a  rich  man,  and  I  want  to 
give  you  some  substantial  token  of  my  gratitude.  Here  —  let  me  write 
you  a  check—  "I  couldn't  accept  anything  —  really  I  couldn't," 
protested  the  other;  "  but  there  is  something  you  might  do  for  me,  all 
the  same."  "  Speak  and  it  shall  be  done."  "  You  are  a  rich  man,  and  I 
know  your  name.  I  am  secretary  of  the  gas  company.  Every  month 
when  you  come  in  to  pay  your  bill  you  make  a  tremendous  row  for  half 
an  hour,  and  declare  that  we  are  highway  robbers.  If  you  would  only 
agree  —  "  "  Not  to  make  a  row  over  my  gas  bill?  Never,  sir;  never. 
You  saved  my  life,  and  I  am  ready  to  draw  a  check  for  $10,000;  but  as 
for  foregoing  a  privilege  granted  only  to  free-born  Britons,  I  can't  surrender 
it  —  couldn't  do  it  if  you  saved  my  life  a  dozen  times  over." 


Gas  Meters  and  Gas-Meter  Stories  169 

No.  13.  An  instance  occurred  at  a  large  wholesale  warehouse,  where 
gas  was  being  consumed  during  the  whole  of  the  twenty-four  hours  daily; 
but  in  the  day  time,  as  at  night  after  business  hours,  only  a  small  number 
of  burners  were  used.  The  principal  of  the  establishment  found  the  con- 
sumption very  excessive,  and  complained  to  the  company.  The  meter 
was  accordingly  tested  for  his  satisfaction,  in  the  presence  of  his  repre- 
sentative, and  found  correct.  Subsequently,  renewed  and  continuous 
complaints  were  made,  when  an  officer  of  the  company  went  to  investigate 
the  affair,  and  a  simple  observation  of  a  few  minutes  convinced  him  that 
there  was  an  important  escape  of  gas  somewhere;  pursuing  the  inquiry, 
he  found  a  defective  pipe  on  the  roof  of  a  detached  building,  which  at 
once  accounted  for  the  complaint  and  loss.  The  isolated  position  of  the 
place  where  the  defective  pipe  existed  prevented  the  escape  of  the  gas 
being  detected  by  the  smell;  and  the  loss,  being  continuous,  made  it  of 
very  serious  importance. 

Had  the  principal,  or  the  persons  in  his  employ,  understood  the  con- 
struction of  the  meter,  they  would  have  done  precisely  the  same  as  the 
gas  inspector  —  turned  off  all  the  taps  on  the  premises,  leaving  the  main 
tap  open,  and  then  noticed  the  drum  or  dial,  which  shows  the  units  of 
feet  passing  and  would  have  observed  this  to  revolve,  clearly  proving 
the  gas  was  passing,  although  none  was  used. 

Stories  similar  to  those  mentioned  are  a  daily  occurrence  in  a 
gas  company's  office.  In  nearly  all  cases  of  this  kind  the  gas 
consumer  at  once  blames  the  "lying  gas  meter,"  the  instrument 
against  which  there  exists  such  universal  prejudice.  Examples 
might  be  multiplied,  but  it  is  believed  that  those  quoted  will 
suffice  to  point  out  a  lesson,  and  to  prove  that  very  often - 
indeed,  nearly  always  —  there  is  some  good  and  sufficient  reason 
why  a  gas  meter  has  registered  in  spite  of  the  loud  protest  of  the 
gas  consumer  that  he  has  not  used  any  gas. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  ILLUMINATION  OF  INTERIORS  WITH  GAS  LIGHTS. 

MUCH  of  our  life  is  necessarily  spent  by  artificial  light,  in 
business,  social,  and  educational  pursuits.  In  dwelling  houses, 
in  particular,  much  of  the  home  comfort,  after  darkness  sets  in, 
will  depend  upon  the  arrangement  and  distribution  of  the  gas 
lamps.  I,  therefore,  intend  to  give  in  this  chapter  some  advice 
regarding  the  types  of  gas  fixtures  to  be  used,  and  how  best  to 
locate  them  in  the  average  dwelling  house. 

"Let  it  be  borne  in  mind,"  says  the  London  Journal  of  Gas 
Lighting,  in  commenting  upon  a  paper  by  R.  A.  Briggs,  Archi- 
tect, "that  houses  are  used  as  much  by  night  as  by  day,  and 
that  consequently  the  artificial  lighting  is  as  important  a  con- 
sideration as  the  size  and  disposition  of  the  windows. 

"The  architect  should  come  to  an  understanding  with  his 
client  about  the  artificial  lighting,  which  should  not  be  left  to 
chance.  If  only  portable  illuminants  are  to  be  used,  such  as 
lamps  and  candles,  the  architect  may  be  pardoned  for  not 
thinking  about  them.  If,  on  the  contrary,  either  gas  or  electric 
lighting  is  to  be  adopted,  the  architect  ought  to  know  how  to 
make  the  necessary  provision.  Yet  how  often  is  the  lighting  of  a 
dressing-room  intelligently  arranged?  Attention  should  also 
be  given  to  the  lighting  of  the  kitchen  and  service  apartments, 
and  to  the  corridors,  staircases,  retiring-rooms,  etc. 

"Whenever  gas  can  be  had,  it  should  be  installed  to  facilitate 
the  getting  about  in,  and  doing  the  work  of  a  house  during  the 
dark  winter  days,  and  to  this  the  architect  should  see.  What 
ever  may  be  the  occupant's  taste  in  regard  to  the  lighting  of  the 
drawing-room,  or  even  the  dining-room,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion of  the  superiority  of  gas  for  the  purposes  above-named,  as 
well  as  for  the  hall,  the  vestibule, "  etc.  ..."  The  architect 
who  cannot  dispose  of  a  gas  fixture  so  as  to  obtain  a  good  effect 
from  it  had  better  get  himself  a  tie-wig  and  a  sword,  and  for- 
swear railway  travelling  and  the  use  of  the  penny  post  and 
telegraph  until  he  is  sure  of  his  epoch. " 

170 


Illumination  of  Interiors  with  Gas  Lights      171 

At  an  early  stage  of  the  construction  of  the  building,  it  is 
well  to  begin  by  marking  all  the  desired  outlets  on  the  house 
plans.  It  is  also  advisable  to  show  all  doors  on  the  plans  and 
the  direction  in  which  they  swing  when  opened,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  frequent  mistakes  of  placing  gas  fixtures  where  the  doors 
necessarily  open  up  against  them. 

It  is  well  to  fix  at  once,  when  locating  the  gas  outlets,  upon 
the  height  of  the  same  above  the  floor  level.  This  depends  to 
some  extent  upon  the  design  of  the  fixture  used.  Where  fixtures 
are  intended  for  gas  only,  it  is  usually  safe  to  place  the  side  outlets 
at  a  height  of  five  and  one-half  feet  from  the  finished  floor  in  all 
rooms,  and  six  and  one-half  feet  in  all  halls  and  passages,  except 
where  the  ceilings  are  very  low,  in  which  case  there  should  be  at 
least  two  feet  between  a  gas  flame  and  the  ceiling  (three  feet 
would  be  still  safer).  Where  combination  electric  and  gas  fix- 
tures are  used,  the  gas  burner  is  always  placed  uppermost,  while 
the  electric  glow  lamp  hangs  down  or  is  placed  inclined  and 
pointing  downwards.  In  that  case  the  gas  outlet  requires  to 
be  put  higher  than  usual  to  avoid  exposing  the  electric  lamp  to 
breakage. 

It  is  equally  important  not  to  place  the  burners  on  chandeliers 
too  high,  as  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  illuminate  the  ceiling.  In 
those  rooms  where  a  large  center  table  is  placed  permanently 
under  the  chandelier,  such  as  the  sitting  room  or  the  library,  the 
chandelier  should  be  hung  low  so  as  to  obtain  a  concentrated 
illumination  on  the  table  for  reading,  writing,  or  working.  The 
usual  height  of  gas  burners  on  such  chandeliers  is  from  five  and 
one-half  to  six  feet  from  the  finished  floor.  In  dining  rooms,  the 
burners  should  be  at  such  a  height  that  they  will  effect  a  good 
illumination  of  the  table,  thus  rendering  it  more  pleasing  and 
attractive  to  the  house  occupants  and  their  guests.  In  all 
other  cases,  chandeliers  must  be  so  hung  that  their  lowest  point 
is  located  well  above  the  head  of  persons  passing  underneath. 

Regarding  the  size  of  the  burners  to  be  chosen,  it  may  be 
stated  in  general  that  for  average-sized  rooms  it  is  much  better 
to  have  a  few  large  burners  lighted  than  a  larger  number  of 
smaller  burners. 

For  lighting  hallways,  staircases,  passages,  servants'  bed- 
rooms, and  the  servants'  department  in  the  basement,  plain, 
durable  fixtures,  with  little  ornamentation,  should  be  chosen; 
but  in  the  principal  rooms  of  a  house,  the  fixtures  should  be 


172  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

4  selected  with  a  due  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  the  rooms,  the 
style  and  scheme  of  decoration,  the  colors  of  the  wall  paper,  the 
furniture,  and  the  purposes  of  the  rooms. 

In  locating  the  gas-lighting  fixtures  on  the  plan  or  at  the 
building,  the  following  general  points  should  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind :  y 

Center  lamps  on  chandeliers  are  more  efficient  in  lighting  up 
a  room  than  side  lamps  because  the  former  can  radiate  the  light 
in  all  directions,  whereas  much  of  the  light  from  brackets  is 
absorbed  by  the  walls,  particularly  if  these  are  tinted  a  dark 
color. 

Place  the  lights  where  they  will  light  up  the  room,  or  else  the 
special  parts  of  a  room,  for  instance  the  reading  desk,  the  dining 
table,  the  steps  of  the  stairs,  etc.,  to  the  best  advantage.  Also 
place  the  fixtures  in  such  a  position  that  there  will  be  no  danger 
from  fire  from  them. 

In  locating  gas  fixtures  on  the  house  plans,  mark  not  only 
the  outlets  where  wanted  with  a  star  (*)  or  by  any  other  con- 
venient and  easily  intelligible  symbol,  but  indicate  also  the 
number  of  burners  for  each  outlet;  also,  where  this  is  practicable, 
indicate  on  the  plan  the  height  of  side-wall  fixtures  above  the 
finished  floor. 

To  avoid  accidents  on  stairways  from  persons  stumbling,  see 
that  no  light  is  so  placed  that  it  may  throw  an  objectionable 
shadow. 

Avoid  locating  a  fixture  directly  at  the  foot  of  the  cellar  stairs, 
where  it  may  become  accidentally  hit. 

In  hallways  avoid  the  use  of  side  or  bracket  fixtures,  as  these 
may  interfere  seriously  with  the  placing  of  hall  furniture. 

In  locating  side  fixtures  always  make  sure  that  no  door  would 
swing  against  them. 

Avoid  placing  gas  burners  where  they  would  be  located  in  a 
strong  draft. 

Do  not  place  any  gas  lamps  in  small  closets. 

Never  place  gas  outlets  vertically  over  hot-air  registers  or 
over  steam  radiators,  for  light  from  burners  so  placed  will  give 
constant  annoyance  by  flickering. 

Do  not  place  gas  jets  so  low  that  persons  sitting  in  a  room 
would  be  obliged  to  look  directly  into  the  glare  of  the  flame. 
This  causes  an  injurious  eye  strain.  Flames  so  placed  must  be 
covered  with  opaque  shades. 


Illumination  of  Interiors  with  Gas  Lights      173 

Avoid  the  use  of  swinging  side  fixtures  as  much  as  possible, 
chiefly  so  at  curtained  windows,  near  door  portieres  or  window 
drapery  of  any  kind. '  Swing  fixtures  are  equally  bad  in  halls, 
passages,  and  stairs,  or  near  woodwork  of  any  kind.  Use  stiff 
brackets,  or,  where  light  may  be  required  sometimes  at  the  left 
or  at  other  times  at  the  right  of  the  fixture,  use  two  or  more 
stiff  arms  and  several  burners. 

In  bathrooms  set  the  fixtures  high,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way 
of  persons  dressing  in  a  hurry. 

In  hallways,  put  the  pendants  so  high  that  they  cannot  be 
accidentally  hit  by  persons  putting  on  their  overcoats. 


The  following  suggestions  may  serve  as  a  guide  in  locating  the 
outlets  in  the  different  rooms. 

Beginning  in  the  cellar,  there  should  be  a  burner  near  the 
foot  of  the  cellar  stairs,  also  one  or  several  in  the  cellar  passages, 
a  burner  in  the  wine  cellar,  and  one  near  the  furnace,  steam 
boiler,  or  other  house-heating  apparatus.  Where  there  is  a 
steam  boiler,  there  should  be  a  burner  near  the  same  with  a 
polished  metal  reflector,  so  placed  as  to  throw  the  light  on 
the  water  glass  tube  and  on  the  steam  gauge.  The  side 
brackets  should  be  plain,  stiff  brackets,  and  the  burners  should 
be  three-foot  burners,  preferably  surrounded  with  large  wire 
cages. 

In  larger  kitchens  there  should  be  a  two-burner  pendant  with 
3-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner  over  the  center  table,  the  pendant 
preferably  to  be  hung  with  a  swivel  joint,  so  it  can  be  placed 
out  of  the  way  whenever  the  table  is  removed.  There  should  be 
a  bracket  lamp  fixture  at  the  kitchen  range,  and  in  large  kitchens 
another  lamp  over  the  kitchen  sink,  each  of  these  to  have  a 
3-  or  4-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner.  In  smaller  kitchens  provide 
only  side  lamps,  one  to  the  left  of  the  sink,  one  at  the  range  or 
stove,  and  one  at  the  side  table. 

If  there  is  a  separate  servants'  sitting  room  or  dining  hall, 
there  should  be  a  two-lamp  pendant  over  the  table,  with  3-cubic- 
foot-per-hour  burners. 

In  the  laundry  there  should  be  a  fixed  center  fixture,  where  the 
ceiling  is  high,  or  a  hinged  pendant  in  case  of  a  low  ceiling,  also 
one  stiff  side  bracket  at  the  washtubs,  with  a  4-  or  5-cubic-foot- 
per-hour  burner,  and  possibly  one  at  the  left-hand  end  ,of  the 


174  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

ironing  table.  All  the  burners  should  be  surrounded  with  well- 
fastened  large  wire  cages  to  protect  the  flame. 

In  the  kitchen  storeroom  there  should  be  a  single-lamp  pend- 
ant, the  drop  type  being  preferred,  because  it  does  not  interfere 
with  shelves. 

There  should  be  a  bracket  fixture  at  the  refrigerator,  and  one 
in  the  scullery  at  the  sink. 

In  the  butler's  pantry  a  side  bracket  over  the  pantry  sink  is 
desirable,  in  addition  to  a  center  fixture ;  but  as  a  rule  one  two- 
lamp  pendant  with  3-cubic-foot-per-hour  burners  is  ample. 

Continuing  the  consideration  of  the  servants'  department, 
there  should  be  one  side  bracket  with  a  3-cubic-foot-per  hour 
burner,  and  with  large  wire  globe  or  cage  in  each  housemaid's 
closet  or  at  the  housemaid's  sink.  In  the  linen  closet,  the  light 
should  preferably  come  from  a  pendant  with  a  wire  cage. 

The  servants'  bathroom  should  have  a  side  bracket  with  a 
3-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner,  and  there  should  be  in  each  ser- 
vant's bedroom  one  lamp,  not  placed  near  the  bed  or  near 
window  curtains.  These  lamps  should  be  supported  on  stiff 
brackets,  and  they  should  be  surrounded  with  wire  cages. 
Three-cubic-foot-per-hour  burners  will  give  ample  light,  and  it  is 
particularly  desirable,  if  the  servants'  bedrooms  are  on  the  top 
floor  of  the  house,  where  the  gas  pressure  is  highest,  to  use 
automatic  governor  burners. 

The  servants'  stairs  and  rear  halls  should  have  a  sufficient 
number  of  single  stiff-bracket  lamps,  with  3-cubic-foot-per-hour 
burners  and  wire  cage  to  light  them  up  well.  As  a  rule,  one 
light  on  each  floor  landing  will  be  sufficient.  The  use  of 
polished  reflectors  to  light  up  dark  passages  is  much  to  be 
recommended. 

Turning  now  our  attention  to  the  front  portion  of  the  house, 
there  should  be  a  center  drop  fixture  or  a  hall  lamp  with  one 
4-  or  5-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner,  in  the  outer  vestibule,  and  this 
lamp  should  be  so  placed,  if  practicable,  as  to  light  up  the 
house  number  over  the  front  door.  Outside  lanterns,  though 
not  much  used  except  for  large  mansions,  form  a  very  useful 
feature  and  are  a  great  protection  against  burglaries.  It  is 
essential  that  they  should  be  provided  with  holophane  globe  or 
other  reflector,  throwing  the  light  downward,  so  that  they  will 
light  up  well  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  main  porch  in  front  of 
the  house. 


Illumination  of  Interiors  with  Gas  Lights      175 

There  is  generally  a  center  lamp  in  the  front  hall  near  the 
inner  vestibule  door,  or  directly  opposite  the  hatrack;  also  one 
or  more  bracket  lamps  in  the  main  hall  passageway. 

A  bracket  lamp,  coming  through  a  mirror,  is  sometimes  placed 
on  the  upper  stair  landing,  and  stiff-bracket  side  lamps  with  one 
or  two  arms  are  located  in  the  center  of  each  staircase  hall. 
Lamps  on  the  stair  newels  are  not  used  at  the  present  time  as 
much  as  in  former  days. 

In  the  drawing  room,  reception  room  or  parlor,  a  better,  more 
uniform,  and  more  diffused  illumination  can  be  obtained  by  dis- 
carding the  cumbersome  center  chandelier,  with  its  cluster  of 
lamps  all  concentrated  in  one  place,  and  placing  instead 
numerous  side  lamps  around  the  walls.  These  will  prove 
efficient  wherever  the  walls  are  decorated  in  a  light  color.  In 
rooms  decorated  in  dark  colors  and  in  all  those  exceeding 
eighteen  feet  in  width,  however,  both  side  brackets  and 
chandeliers  should  be  used.  Brackets  may  also  be  placed 
at  the  sides  of  the  fireplace,  or  upright  lamps  on  the  mantle- 
piece.  If  other  side  lamps  are  required  they  should  be  placed 
with  reference  to  the  position  of  the  furniture  and  the  wall 
pictures. 

The  drawing  room,  above  all  other  rooms  in  a  house,  requires 
a  brilliant  illumination  in  order  to  light  up  effectively  the  faces, 
the  dresses,  and  the  jewelry  of  the  company,  and  therefore  large, 
5-  or  6-cubic-foot-per-hour  burners  should  be  used.  The  new 
incandescent  mantle  burners  in  candle  form,  made  by  the 
Enos  Co.,  of  New  York  City,  are  particularly  attractive  as  well 
as  effective  in  lighting  up  the  room.  It  should  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  color  of  the  walls  and  ceiling,  and  of  the 
draperies  and  furniture,  has  considerable  bearing  upon  the 
question  of  lighting  up  such  rooms  properly.  Light  colors 
reflect  the  light,  and  are,  therefore,  better  than  dark  colors, 
which  absorb  it.  Dark-colored  rooms  require  more  lamps  and 
larger  burners  to  be  effectively  lighted. 

A  flood  of  warm  and  soft  light  may  be  obtained  by  using  sun 
burners  in  the  ceiling,  and  this  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
direct  glare  from  ordinary  chandeliers.  Owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  placing  gas  lamps  close  up  to  the  ceiling,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  for  ceiling  illumination  of  drawing  rooms  the  electric  lamp 
offers  a  more  promising  field  to  the  decorative  artist.  The 
electric  incandescent  lamp  is  also  much  to  be  preferred  from  a 


176  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

decorative  point  of  view  for  lighting  up  cosy  corners,  recesses  in 
bay  windows,  etc. 

Regarding  the  lighting  of  dining  rooms,  however  individual 
tastes  may  differ,  the  chief  problem  is,  without  question,  to  light 
up  the  dining  table  brightly  and  artistically,  yet  not  too  bril- 
liantly. A  center  chandelier,  with  four,  six,  or  eight  arms,  and 
5-cubic-foot-per-hour  burners,  should  be  the  chief  feature,  to 
which  is  sometimes  added  an  extension  or  slide  pendant  with 
Argand  or  with  Welsbach  burner.  There  should  be  side  fix- 
tures at  or  on  the  sideboard,  and  sometimes  side  brackets  at 
the  mantlepiece.  Where  there  are  fine  paintings  on  the  wall, 
side  brackets  should  be  suitably  arranged  so  as  to  display  these 
to  the  best  advantage.  A  side  bracket  at  the  carving  table  may 
also  prove  a  great  convenience. 

As  the  dinner  table  is  the  chief  feature  of  the  dining  rooms, 
so  are  the  reading  table  and  the  writing  desk  the  chief  features  of 
the  library  and  the  sitting  room.  Where  there  is  a  fixed  center 
table  a  chandelier  with  extension  lamp  may  be  used,  together 
with  side  lamps  at  the  reading  table  or  reading  chair.  The  light 
in  this  room  should  not  be  too  brilliant,  except  at  the  writing 
desk  or  the  reading  table,  where  an  Argand  or  Welsbach  mantle 
table-lamp,  or  a  bracket  Argand  burner  of  strong  candlepower 
should  be  fitted  up  so  as  to  concentrate  the  light.  The  library 
requires  in  addition  one  or  more  bracket  fixtures  for  reading 
besides  the  center  chandelier  already  spoken  of. 

The  billiard  room  requires  a  drop  over  the  center  of  the 
billiard  table,  with  from  four  to  six  large  burners;  also  a  side 
bracket  at  the  lavatory. 

The  boudoir  of  the  lady  of  the  house,  and  the  den  of  the  master 
of  the  house  may  be  treated  differently  in  each  case  according 
to  the  taste  of  the  occupant,  and  side  illumination  will  generally 
be  used,  together  with  a  strong  and  powerful  light  at  the  reading 
desk  or  writing  table. 

The  sewing  room  should  have  a  side  bracket  at  the  sewing 
machine,  with  a  5-cubic-foot-per-hour  burner;  the  nursery  should 
also  have  one  or  two  side  lamps,  and  may  be  treated  much  like 
the  bedrooms. 

Bedrooms,  as  a  rule,  should  not  have  ceiling  fixtures.  There 
should  be  a  bracket  fixture  at  the  wall  against  which  the  head 
of  the  bed  stands,  near  the  bedstead,  and  another  near  the  wash- 
stand.  The  toilet  table  or  bureau  generally  has  two  stiff  side 


Illumination  of  Interiors  with  Gas  Lights      177 

brackets,  one  on  each  side  of  the  looking  glass,  to  which,  for 
ladies'  dressing  tables,  a  mirror  light,  suspended  high  or  dropped 
from  the  ceiling  in  center  and  placed  high  in  front  of  the  mirror, 
is  sometimes  added.  Near  the  fireplace  there  may  be  a  bracket 
fixture  for  a  reading  lamp. 

According  to  its  size  and  the  number  of  fixtures,  the  bath- 
room may  have  one  or  two  stiff  side  brackets  with  4-  or  5-cubic- 
foot-per-hour  burners,  generally  one  lamp  at  the  wash  basin  and 
another  at  or  near  the  wrater-closet.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a 
side  bracket  at  the  shaving  mirror,  if  this  is  placed  in  the  bath- 
room. 

Provide  against  the  frequent  and  objectionable  discoloration 
of  ceilings  by  the  gas  flames  by  placing  these  not  closer  than 
3.5  feet  to  ceilings,  and  where  this  is  impracticable  on  account 
of  low  ceilings,  use  deflectors,  or  else  ventilating  hoods  over  the 
burners. 

In  bathrooms,  hallways,  pantries,  and  stairs,  lights  which 
are  used  only  a  short  while  at  a  time  should  be  provided  with 
the  so-called  "  self-igniting  "  burners,  which  can  be  turned  dowTi 
during  the  intervals  when  not  wanted,  and  normally  burn  only  a 
small  pilot  flame. 

The  hints  thrown  out  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  may  be 
useful  as  a  general  guide  in  locating  the  gas  outlets  of  a  house; 
they  also  serve  to  illustrate  the  wide  adaptability  of  gas  lighting 
in  the  home.  As  regards  the  large  rooms,  no  hard  and  fast  rules 
can  be  given,  as  so  much  depends  upon  the  individual  taste  of 
the  owner  or  his  decorative  artist,  and  upon  the  decorative 
features  of  the  house  in  general. 


In  addition  to  the  outlets  required  for  illumination  by  gas, 
there  should  be  provided  the  necessary  outlets  for  gas  cooking 
and  gas  heating  fixtures.  Beginning  in  the  kitchen,  if  there  is  to 
be  a  gas  range,  this  should  have  an  entirely  separate  supply  pipe, 
with  a  1-  or  1.25-inch  outlet  according  to  the  number  of  gas 
burners  in  the  gas  range. 

If  the  heating  of  the  sad  irons  in  the  laundry  is  to  be  done  by 
gas,  there  should  be  a  separate  supply  pipe  for  these.  Should 
there  be  a  gas  plate  warmer  in  the  butler's  pantry  an  outlet  from 
the  separate  line  should  be  provided  for  it. 

In  some  of  the  living  rooms  grate  fires  or  gas  logs  may  be 


178  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

fitted  up  in  the  fireplaces;  they  always  require  separate  and 
independent  supply  lines  from  those  lines  which  supply  the 
lighting  fixtures.  This  also  applies  to  any  gas  warming  stoves. 
In  the  bathroom,  for  instance,  outlets  are  wanted  for  a  gas 
stove  or  for  a  gas  fireplace  heater,  or  a  gas  water-heater,  also 
sometimes  for  a  gas  jet  in  local  ventilating  flues. 

Sometimes  houses  are  fitted  up  with  a  larger  gas  water-heater 
in  the  cellar,  in  which  case  this  requires  a  large  outlet,  not  less 
than  0.75  inch,  from  the  separate  line  which  supplies  the  fixtures 
intended  for  cooking  or  heating. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE    LIGHTING   OF    COUNTRY    HOUSES. 

IN  the  case  of  houses  in  the  country,  and  not  within  reach  of 
either  the  city  gas  mains,  or  of  a  central  electric-lighting  plant, 
it  is  an  interesting  problem  how  to  dispel  the  darkness  and  how 
to  light  up  the  dwellings  in  evening  hours  by  means  of  artificial 
light. 

In  discussing  this  matter,  a  brief  transgression  from  the  sub- 
ject indicated  by  the  title  of  the  book  may  be  pardoned,  because 
of  the  fact  that  other  illuminants,  besides  artificially  made  gas, 
play  an  important  role  in  the  lighting  of  country  houses. 

The  following  may  be  said  to  be  general  requirements  of  arti- 
ficial illumination: 

(a)  The  light  should  be  moderate  in  cost  and  safe  and  con- 
venient to  manage. 

(6)  It  should  be  abundant  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 
required. 

(c)  It  should  be  as  near  to  daylight  or  sunlight,  as  to  quality 
and  color,  as  possible. 

(d)  The  light  intensity  should  not  be  injurious  to  the  eyes, 
and  the  illumination  should  not  be  too  concentrated. 

(e)  The   objectionable  or  harmful  elements  of  illumination, 
such  as  the  radiant  heat  from  the  flame,  the  contamination  of 
the  air  by  products  of  combustion,  the  possibility  of  explosions, 
or  of  bodily  injury  by  coming  in  contact  with  live  electric  wires, 
should  be  excluded,  or  at  least  the  danger  therefrom  should  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  production  of  all  artificial  light  is  based  upon  the  property 
which  some  substances  have  of  becoming  incandescent,  and  in 
nearly  all  illuminants  it  is  the  carbon  which  becomes  incandescent 
and  thereby  gives  a  flame,  though  there  are  also  other  light-giving 
substances,  such  as  platinum,  magnesia  and  others,  like  the 
Welsbach  gauze  mantles  impregnated  with  rare  earths.  As  a 
rule,  the  material  used  for  lighting  is  consumed  by  the  flame,  as 
for  instance  in  the  candle,  in  the  oil  lamp,  in  the  gas  flame;  but 

179 


180  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

there  are  exceptions,  for  instance,  the  carbon  filament  of  the 
electric  incandescent  lamp,  and  the  mantle  burner  of  incan- 
descent gas  lamps.  Wherever  the  material  used  in  lighting 
is  consumed  in  the  flame,  the  combustion  forms  an  oxidation 
process  and  plenty  of  air  is  required  to  make  the  same 
successful. 

We  may  distinguish  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  illuminants,  of 
which  the  candle  (animal  substance),  the  oil  lamp  (vegetable 
substance),  and  the  gas  flame  (mineral  substance)  are  represen- 
tative examples. 

Among  solid  illuminants  we  make  use  of  tallow,  stearine, 
wax,  paraffine,  and  spermaceti;  the  liquid  illuminants  comprise 
rape  or  colza  oil,  solar  oil,  olive  oil,  linseed  oil,  kerosene,  benzine, 
and  alcohol ;  gaseous  illuminants  are  the  coal  gas,  water  gas,  oil 
gas,  gasoline  and  acetylene  gas. 

All  these  illuminants  are  but  different  forms  of  hydrocarbons; 
and  in  all  of  them,  the  hydrogen  (H)  and  the  carbon  (C)  must 
unite  in  combustion  with  oxygen  (0),  forming  water  (H20)  and 
carbon  oxide  (CO)  as  well  as  carbonic  acid.(C02). 

When  solid  or  liquid  illuminants  are  used,  the  gas  required  for 
combustion  in  the  flame  is  generated  only  as  fast  as  wanted;  in 
other  words,  there  is  no  surplus  or  storage  of  gas  as  in  the  case 
of  gas  illumination.  In  the  form  of  the  candle  the  illuminant 
requires  the  greatest  transformation  up  to  the  flame.  It  may 
be  said  in  general  that  the  solid  illuminants  are  the  most  expen- 
sive, and  also  the  least  desirable  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view. 
(See  the  table  of  cost  of  illuminants  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.) 
Their  flames  are  injurious  to  the  eyes  because  of  the  flickering  of 
the  light. 

After  this  introduction,  I  will  now  discuss  very  briefly  the 
various  methods  available  for  the  lighting  of  country  houses. 
These  comprise  chiefly  the  following : 

First:  Candle  illumination. 

Second:  Illumination  by  lamps  burning  vegetable  or  mineral 
oil,  and  in  some  instances  by  lamps  burning  alcohol  in  connec- 
tion with  incandescent  mantles. 

Third:  Illumination  by  gas,  which  may  be  either: 
(a)   Gasoline  or  air  gas. 

(6)   Acetylene  gas.  The  latter  gas  is  sometimes  burned 
in  portable  acetylene  lamps. 

Fourth:  Illumination  by  electricity. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  181 

Candles.  Candles  give  a  subdued  and  pleasant,  but  not  a 
brilliant  illumination.  The  old-fashioned  tallow  candles  are 
very  unsatisfactory,  as  the  flame  is  apt  to  flicker  and  smoke; 
they  are  made  from  the  fat  of  animals,  such  as  muttons;  sper- 
maceti candles  are  made  from  fat  of  the  sperm  whale;  stearine 
candles  are  better,  but  the  best  light  is  obtained  from  hard 
paraffine  and  from  wax  candles,  which  burn  more  slowly  and 
with  a  more  perfect  combustion.  At  the  present  day  all  candles 
are  manufactured  by  casting  them  in  forms,  with  the  exception 
of  the  wax  candles,  which  are  drawn  or  rolled.  The  wick  used 
in  the  candle  must  be  treated  chemically,  so  that  it  will  twist 
when  burning  and  fall  off,  thus  not  requiring  the  snuffing  of  the 
candle,  as  in  the  tallow  candles  formerly  used.  The  objection 
to  paraffine  candles,  which  give  a  brilliant  light,  is  that  they  are 
soft  and  become  bent  in  summer  time  from  the  heat.  The  wax 
candles,  which  are  made  in  all  shapes  and  of  all  colors,  plain, 
fluted,  or  otherwise  decorated,  are  superior  in  appearance,  give  a 
most  beautiful  and  soft  mellow  light,  have  no  bad  smell,  are 
clean,  firm,  hard,  and  slow  burning,  and  for  decorative  purposes 
are  quite  effective,  but  they  are  not  cheap.  In  fact,  candlelight 
is  very  inadequate  as  far  as  lighting  up  large  living  rooms  is  con- 
cerned, or  if  made  adequate,  it  is  very  costly.  The  intensity  of 
the  light  cannot  be  regulated  in  candle  illumination,  except  by 
reducing  or  increasing  the  number  of  candles  burnt,  and  in  this 
respect  the  illumination  is  also  less  satisfactory  than  illumination 
by  lamps. 

One  advantage  of  candles  should  be  mentioned,  namely,  that 
they  are  safer  to  carry  about  in  a  house  than  oil  lamps. 

Illumination  by  Oil  Lamps.  Lamp  illumination  is  much  older 
than  that  by  means  of  candles,  but  the  ancient  lamps,  con- 
sisting of  open  earthen  or  bronze  vases,  filled  with  olive  oil, 
into  which  a  wick  of  flax  or  oakum  dipped,  were  rather  crude 
devices,  which  did  not  give  much  light  and  emitted  more  or  less 
smoke.  The  scientific  principles  of  proper  combustion  were 
apparently  unknown  to  the  ancients. 

All  lamps  which  use  fluid  illuminants  require  storage  reservoirs 
for  the  fluid;  they  also  require  a  wick,  which  may  be  either 
flat  or  round,  single  or  double,  and  a  chimney  to  furnish  a  draft 
and  thus  to  supply  plenty  of  air  to  the  flame,  which  will  other- 
wise flicker  and  smoke. 


182  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Lamps  are  either  suction  or  pressure  lamps;  the  former  burn 
the  lighter  and  more  volatile  oils,  such  as  kerosene,  while  the 
pressure  lamps  burn  the  heavier  vegetable  oils  or  whale  oil. 

In  modern  lamps  the  wick  is  made  movable  to  reduce  or  in- 
crease the  flame  at  will.  Before  the  introduction  of  the  use  of 
mineral  or  kerosene  oil,  fat  or  vegetable  oil  was  burnt  in  lamps, 
and  inasmuch  as  this  fluid  ascended  but  slowly  into  the  wick, 
it  became  necessary  to  use  some  device  to  force  or  press  the  oil 
up  to  it;  in  the  so-called  "moderator  "  oil  lamps,  for  instance, 
a  piston  was  operated  by  a  spring  which  had  to  be  wound  up 
several  times  during  an  evening. 

In  the  more  recent  kerosene  lamps  the  wick  draws  the  light  oil 
up  by  capillary  action  and  no  complicated  mechanism  of  any 
kind  is  required  to  force  the  oil  up  to  the  flame. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  lamps  are  that  they  are  a  reasonably 
cheap  form  of  illumination,  and  that  in  their  best  forms  they 
give  a  very  steady  light.  The  illumination  obtained  from  a 
good  lamp  is  very  restful  to  the  eyes  and  is  particularly  adapted 
for  reading,  writing,  or  sewing.  Being  portable,  lamps  are  very 
conveniently  moved  from  one  place  to  another  where  wanted, 
but  this  very  portability  also  involves  the  danger  from  explosions 
and  possible  fires  resulting  therefrom. 

Among  the  disadvantages  I  mention  the  great  care  required 
in  handling  the  lamps,  the  large  amount  of  heat  given  off, 
particularly  by  the  "  duplex  "  style  of  lamps  and  all  those  hav- 
ing a  large  round  wick;  the  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere,  the  bad 
odors  nearly  always  present  where  kerosene  lamps  are  used,  and 
the  annoyance  and  bother  of  the  daily  cleaning  and  filling  of  the 
lamps,  of  the  cleaning  and  trimming  of  the  wick,  of  the  cleaning 
of  the  chimneys,  not  to  mention  the  trouble  incident  to  the 
breakage  of  lamp  chimneys,  and  of  the  wick  mechanism  getting 
out  of  order,  or  of  the  wick  hardening. 

The  requirements  of  a  good  oil  lamp  are : 

First:  A  regular  and  plentiful  supply  of  oil  to  the  wick. 

Second:  A  supply  of  air  adjusted  to  the  quantity  and  character 
of  the  oil  burned. 

Third:  Simple-acting  and  properly  devised  means  for  regu- 
lating the  height  of  the  wick,  and  consequently  the  size  of  the 
flame. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  183 

Fourth:  The  location  of  the  oil  storage  reservoir  in  such  a 
position  relative  to  the  flame  as  not  to  obscure  the  same  or  cast 
a  shadow. 

To  insure  safety  from  explosions  it  is  necessary  that  the 
kerosene  used  in  the  lamp  should  be  tested  for  its  flash 
point.  It  is  further  advisable  to  use  only  lamps  with  a  metal 
reservoir,  as  those  having  glass  reservoirs  are  somewhat 
dangerous  in  use.  Benzine  oil  is  always  dangerous  and  cannot 
be  recommended. 

Incandescent  Alcohol  Lamps.  In  recent  years  the  manufac- 
ture of  denatured  alcohol  has  increased  largely,  and  use  is  made, 
particularly  in  Germany,  of  the  alcohol  by  burning  it,  with  the 
aid  of  incandescent  mantles,  in  portable  lamps.  Denatured 
alcohol  is  domestic  alcohol  rendered  unfit  for  use  as  a  beverage 
or  as  a  liquid  medicine  by  mixing  with  it  certain  denaturing 
materials,  or  substances  soluble  therein,  either  of  a  bad  taste, 
or  of  a  bad  odor,  or  both.  German  denatured  alcohol  contains 
2  per  cent  wood  alcohol,  0.5  per  cent  pyridins  and  some  rose- 
mary oil.  It  is  sometimes  called  " industrial  alcohol." 

The  alcohol  flame  does  not  in  itself  possess  any  illuminating 
power,  but  its  heat  is  used  to  bring  the  gas  mantle  to  incan- 
descence. The  light  of  alcohol  incandescent  lamps  is  brighter 
and  whiter  than  that  of  kerosene  lamps;  it  does  not  vitiate  the 
air,  and  heats  it  less  than  the  oil  or  kerosene  oil  lamps;  the  lamp 
and  burner  require  but  little  attention.  The  use  of  such  lamps 
has  been  steadily  increasing  in  Germany  in  the  past  years  and 
quite  recently  they  have  appeared  on  the  American  market. 

Gasoline  Gas  Lighting.  For  many  years  country  houses  have 
been  lighted  by  means  of  gasoline  gas  machines,  and  while  the 
results  were  formerly  unsatisfactory,  due  to  the  crude  and 
unimproved  type  of  machines,  the  more  recent  applications  give 
a  quite  satisfactory  illumination. 

In  all  these  machines  the  gas  is  manufactured  from  gasoline, 
which  is  a  colorless  volatile  inflammable  fluid,  the  product  of 
distillation  of  crude  petroleum  or  naphtha.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  from  0.63  to  0.67  (that  of  water  being  1.0). 

The  vapor  of  gasoline  has  a  pungent  odor;  the  fluid  is  readily 
evaporated  under  ordinary  temperatures,  and  it  is  somewhat 
analogous  to  kerosene,  but  contains  elements  of  greater  danger. 
This  danger  lies  chiefly  in  its  tendency  to  vaporize  and  permeate 


184  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  thus  forming  an  explosive  gas. 
Any  approach  to  it  with  fire  or  light  is  dangerous,  and  it  requires 
great  care  in  handling.  "We  find  gasoline  in  use  in  the  hands 
of  hundreds  of  persons",  says  a  report  of  the  Michigan  State 
Board  of  Health,  "  who  do  not  know  that  the  vapor  arising  from 
it  when  mixed  with  the  atmosphere  in  a  proper  proportion 
forms  one  of  the  most  dangerous  explosives. "  For  this  reason 
gasoline  should  never  be  allowed  in  a  building. 

The  process  of  making  gasoline,  or  air  gas,  is  quite  simple  and 
consists  in  forcing  a  current  of  atmospheric  air  over  the  liquid 
gasoline.  The  vapor  which  arises  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  fluid  impregnates  and  saturates  the  air  and  thus  produces 
carburetted  air  gas,  which  is  a  mechanical  (not  a  chemical)  mix- 
ture of  air  and  vapors  of  hydrocarbons  of  a  specific  gravity 
greater  than  that  of  air.  The  gas  has  no  corrosive  effect  on 
iron  pipes,  but  it  is  liable  to  condense. 

The  machine  used  for  producing  carburetted  air  gas  is  called 
a  gas  machine,  and  of  these  there  are  several  types.  The 
majority  of  machines  are  operated  by  a  blower  or  an  air  pump, 
which  is  run  by  a  weight,  which  requires  winding  up,  or  some- 
times by  a  water  wheel.  The  generator,  which  contains  the 
gasoline,  is  always  separate  from  the  blower  and  should  be 
placed  underground,  or  in  a  vault  at  a  distance  of  from  50  to 
70  feet  from  dwellings  and  lower  than  the  connecting  air  pipe. 
The  air  pump  or  blower,  on  the  other  hand,  may  safely  be  put  into 
the  cellar  so  as  to  be  conveniently  operated,  as  it  requires  daily 
attention.  It  should  be  placed  in  an  accessible  and  dry  place,  so 
that  the  pulleys  and  moving  parts  will  not  rust.  The  air  pump 
contains  water  and  must  be  kept  from  freezing.  As  a  rule,  the 
gas  so  generated  is  heavy  and  is  apt  to  smoke  when  burning,  and 
in  order  to  prevent  this,  special  air  mixers  are  attached  to  the 
machine  in  the  cellar,  intended  to  produce  a  gas  of  a  more 
uniform  quality  and  a  better  and  steadier  flame. 

The  air  gas  requires  special  open-flame  burners,  but  even  then 
the  flame  is  not  very  steady,  and  in  recent  years  it  has  been 
found  best  to  burn  it  in  connection  with  incandescent  Welsbach 
mantles.  Even  the  latest  improvement,  namely,  the  inverted 
incandescent  gas  lamp  ean  be  used  in  connection  with  gas 
machines,  and  has  the  advantage  that  it  throws  the  light  down- 
wards and  casts  no  shadows.  In  general,  however,  the  light  is 
somewhat  inferior  to  that  produced  by  acetylene  gas  machines. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  185 

Air-gas  machines  are  cheaply  installed  and  maintained, 
are  easily  manipulated  and  reliable  in  operation.  The  dis- 
advantages are  the  necessity  of  attending  to  the  blower 
and  the  occasional  refilling  of  the  generator  with  gasoline, 
which  is  always  attended  with  some  danger.  An  incidental 
advantage  is  that  the  manufactured  gas  can  be  used,  not  only 
for  lighting,  but  also  for  cooking,  heating,  and  for  running 
engines. 

Since  air  gas  is  much  heavier  than  ordinary  illuminating  gas, 
its  specific  gravity  being  higher  than  air,  it  requires  somewhat 
larger  pipes,  and  the  pipes  must  be  well  run  and  jointed.  Other- 
wise the  gas-piping  scheme  is  quite  the  same  as  that  for  city  gas. 
(See  Chapter  IX.) 

On  account  of  the  dangers  connected  with  the  use  of  gasoline, 
the  underwriters  have  from  time  to  time  framed  stringent  rules 
and  regulations  regarding  the  installation  of  gasoline  machines, 
and  the  substance  of  these  is  given  further  on  in  this  chapter. 
But  beyond  the  danger  incident  to  the  gasoline  itself,  gas-machine 
lighting  is  really  safer  than  lighting  by  lamps;  for  small  houses 
it  is  more  economical  than  the  lighting  by  means  of  a  special 
electric-light  plant. 

Acetylene  Gas  Machines.  A  new  illuminating  agent  for  country 
houses  is  acetylene  gas,  which  is  produced  in  special  apparatus 
from  the  union  of  calciuni  carbide  and  water.  Acetylene  gas 
burns  with  a  steady ;  white,  open  flame,  which  is  many  times 
more  powerful  than  the  flame  produced  from  an  ordinary  open- 
flame  burner,  and  which  is  said  to  cause  a  lessened  strain  on 
the  eyes.  In  the  use  of  this  gas  special  acetylene  burners  are 
required  and  are  made  with  very  small  openings,  consuming 
from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  per  hour. 
The  acetylene  flame  does  not  require  any  globes  and  it  causes 
less  vitiation  of  the  air,  and  likewise  less  heat.  The  gas  is  ex- 
plosive when  mixed  with  air  in  certain  proportions.  Caution 
is  required  in  the  storage  of  the  cans  of  carbide,  which  must 
be  kept  in  an  absolutely  dry  place. 

A  very  large  number  of  acetylene  generators  are  sold  hi  the 
market  and  it  requires  careful  judgment  and  expert  knowledge 
to  select  a  suitable  apparatus.  Those  intending  to  purchase 
acetylene  generators  are  earnestly  advised  to  communicate 
with  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  to  obtain 


186  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

from  them  their  list  of  approved  generators,  which  is  revised 
annually. 

All  generators  consist  of  a  mixing  chamber  or  generator  and  a 
receiver;  in  some  machines  water  is  fed  to  the  carbide,  whereas 
in  others  small  carbide  lumps  are  fed  to  the  water,  and  these 
in  general  are  very  much  preferable.  The  machine  requires 
re-charging  every  few  days  and  the  waste  residue  must  be  safely 
disposed  of.  The  machine  itself  occupies  comparatively  little 
space,  and  requires  no  special  skill  in  attendance. 

While  the  acetylene  apparatus  is  cheaper  in  first  cost  than  a 
good  gasoline  gas-machine  of  the  same  capacity,  acetylene  light- 
ing is  more  expensive  than  gasoline  gas  lighting,  owing  to  the 
cost  of  the  carbide.  (See  the  table  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.) 
The  light  given  off  by  an  acetylene  burner  is  more  brilliant  than 
that  produced  by  the  best  gasoline  machine. 

Underwriters  recommend  that  the  acetylene  generating 
machines  be  placed  in  an  out-building,  which  must  be  protected 
from  freezing  in  winter  time,  and  here  is  where  one  difficulty 
arises.  A  few  underwriters  have  approved  of  the  location  of 
the  generators  in  the  cellar  or  basement  of  a  building,  but  if  so 
located,  acetylene  machines  cannot  be  considered  as  safe  as 
gasoline  gas  machines.  The  lighting  of  entire  villages  or  small 
towns  by  acetylene  gas  has  been  tried  and  is  working  quite 
successfully.  In  such  a  case,  service  pipes  are  branched  from 
the  street  mains  to  the  houses  and  no  individual  acetylene 
generators  are  required. 

The  specifications  for  piping  for  acetylene  gas  have  been  given 
in  Chapter  X,  and  further  on  in  this  chapter  are  given  the  rules 
and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters  regarding  such 
apparatus.  All  piping  for  acetylene  gas  should  be  most  care- 
fully tested  so  as  to  avoid  the  danger  of  leaks,  and  all  fixtures 
must  be  made  and  kept  absolutely  gas-tight. 

Both  the  acetylene  machines  and  the  gasoline  machines  have 
the  advantages  that  they  require  little  attention,  that  they  are 
always  ready  for  use,  and  that  the  intensity  of  the  light  can  be 
regulated.  Both  types  of  apparatus  are  cheaper  than  an 
apparatus  for  generating  electric  light,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
both  of  them  are  more  expensive  than  lamps. 

Portable  Acetylene  Lamps.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  in 
recent  years  portable  acetylene  lamps  have  been  put  on  the 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  187 

market,  which  give  a  very  pleasing,  steady,  white  light,  which  is 
almost  as  efficient  as  sunlight.  In  these  lamps  a  carbide, 
ground  specially  fine,  is  dropped  automatically  from  a  chamber 
above  into  the  water  reservoir  below.  If  the  dropping  of  car- 
bide is  stopped,  the  production  of  gas  ceases.  The  charge  in 
the  lamp  is  sufficient  for  burning  it  ten  hours.  Owing  to  the 
necessity  of  providing  a  large  water  reservoir  for  the  carbide, 
the  lamps  necessarily  become  bulky  and  clumsy,  and  attempts 
to  make  them  ornamental  have  not  been  altogether  successful. 
The  burners  are  special  0.5- or  0.75-cubic-foot-per-hour  acetylene 
burners. 

If  I  am  correctly  informed,  one  or  two  forms  of  such  lamps 
have  met  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters,  but  great 
care  would  seem  to  be  necessary  at  all  times  in  the  manipulation 
of  such  lamps.  The  manufacturers,  on  the  other  hand,  state 
they  are  not  only  durable  and  simple  to  manage,  but  absolutely 
safe,  and  even  less  dangerous  than  kerosene  lamps.  There  is 
no  odor  from  the  lamps  and  no  smoke,  and  they  give  a  light 
of  36  candlepower,  or  over  two  times  the  light  of  an  ordinary 
5-cubic-foot-per-hour,  open-flame  gas  jet  of  16  candlepower. 
While  they  require  no  chimney,  a  glass  shade  is  generally  used 
for  ornament. 

Electric  Lighting.  —  Country  houses  may  finally  be  lighted  by 
electricity,  the  electrical  energy  being  generated  in  a  special 
plant.  Little  need  be  said  in  this  place  about  the  many 
advantages  of  electric  lighting,  but  for  summer  houses  the  fact 
that  the  light  gives  off  comparatively  little  heat  should  be 
specially  mentioned.  There  is  very  little  danger  of  breakage 
of  the  lamps  and  no  danger  of  an  explosion.  No  matches  are 
required  to  make  a  light,  as  is  the  case  with  all  other  illumi- 
nants  mentioned.  Very  unique  lighting  effects  may  be  obtained, 
because  electric  lamps  can  be  placed  in  almost  any  position. 
It  is  usually  stated  that  there  is  very  little  danger  from  fire 
where  electric  lighting  is  used,  but  recent  statistics  would  seem 
to  disprove  this  assertion. 

The  wiring  of  a  building  is  quite  an  expensive  affair  if  properly 
done,  and  so  is  the  installation  of  a  lighting  plant,  particularly 
for  the  smaller  houses. 

The  electric-lighting  plant  may  consist  of  a  dynamo,  run  by  a 
gasoline  or  kerosene  engine;  in  other  cases  a  steam  engine  or 


188  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

water-power  are  used.  A  great  economy  can  be  effected  by 
combining  the  electric-lighting  plant  with  the  water-pumping 
plant  of  a  country  house. 

On  account  of  the  vibration  or  noise  of  the  engine  it  is  better 
to  put  it  outside  of  the  house,  either  in  a  special  building  or  in 
the  barn.  It  is  also  desirable  to  provide  storage  batteries  or 
accumulators,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  lighting  for  some  hours 
after  the  engine  has  stopped  running. 

While  some  electric-lighting  plants  have  recently  been  installed 
which  are  so  simple  that  a  coachman,  gardener,  or  man-servant 
may  run  them,  it  must  nevertheless  be  said  that  electric  lighting 
is  still  so  expensive  a  method  of  illumination  that  it  can  only  be 
adopted  by  the  wealthy  people. 

The  portability,  which  was  mentioned  as  an  incidental  advan- 
tage of  oil-lamp  illumination,  may  be  attained  in  electric  illumi- 
nation, by  the  simple  method  of  providing  plugs  at  numerous 
points  to  which  the  electric  lamps  can  be  attached. 

Summing  up  what  has  been  said,  we  may  state  that  candle 
and  lamp  illumination  are  comparatively  little  used  for  the  light- 
ing of  country  houses,  and  the  choice  usually  rests  between  a 
gasoline  gas  machine,  an  acetylene  gas  machine  and  an  electric- 
lighting  plant. 

In  building  new  houses,  it  is  always  advisable  to  install  both 
gas  piping  and  electric  wiring. 


The  following  statement  as  to  the  relative  cost  of  gasoline 
and  acetylene  gas  lighting  and  the  tables,  giving  the  compara- 
tive cost  of  equivalent  illumination  by  means  of  different  illumi- 
nants,  will  be  of  interest : 

Cost  of  Gasoline  and  Acetylene  Gas  Lighting. 

The  cost  of  gasoline  machine-made  gas  depends  primarily 
upon  the  price  charged  for  gasoline.  This  varies  considerably, 
and  at  the  present  time  may  be  said  to  fluctuate  between  15  and 
23  cents  per  gallon. 

It  is  sometimes  claimed  by  manufacturers  of  gasoline  gas 
machines  that  4.5  gallons  of  best  quality  gasoline  are  sufficient 
to  make  1000  cubic  feet  of  air  gas,  but  estimating  more  liberally, 
it  may  be  said  to  require  six  gallons  of  the  gasoline  fluid  to 
saturate  air  so  as  to  produce  1000  cubic  feet  of  gasoline  gas. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  189 

Hence  the  price  of  1000  cubic  feet  of  gas  would  run  from  6  X 
15  =  90  cents  to  23  X  6  =  $1.38. 

The  cost  for  attendance  of  a  gas  machine  is  almost  nothing, 
involving  merely  the  daily  winding  up  of  the  drum  and  the 
occasional  refilling  of  the  generator  with  gasoline.  In  the  newer 
forms  of  gas  machines,  which  are  run  by  a  water  wheel  instead 
of  by  a  drum,  the  water  supply  required  is  stated  to  be  about 
2  gallons  per  burner  per  hour.  If  10  burners  are  kept  lighted 
for  5  hours  per  evening,  this  would  mean  2  X  10  X  5  =  100  gal- 
lons of  water,  which  probably  would  not  cost  over  1  or  1.5  cents 
per  day. 

Burning  the  gasoline  gas  in  an  incandescent  mantle  burner, 
which  consumes  3  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  and  gives,  say, 
about  40  candlepower,  we  have  the  cost  per  candlepower-hour 
equal  to 

3  X  90 

— —  =  0.0065  cent  (if  gasoline  costs  15  cents) 
1000  X  40 

and 

3  X  1.38 


1000X40 


=  0.01035  cent  (if  gasoline  costs  23  cents), 


or  an  average  of  0.0084  cent  per  candlepower-hour,  or  0.84 
per  100  candlepower-hour.  But  burning  the  same  gas  in  flat- 
flame  burners,  we  find  the  cost  to  be  much  higher.  Gasoline  gas, 
costing  $1.20  per  1000  cubic  feet,  costs  in  a  flat-flame  burner, 
using  4  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  and  giving  not  more  than 
12  candlepower, 

4  X  120 
1QOQ      =  0.5  cent  per  hour, 

or  -—  =  0.04  cent  per  candlepower  (4  cents  per  100  candle- 
power-burners). 

If  gasoline  gas  costs  75  cents  per  1000  cubic  feet,  the  cost  per 
100  candlepower-hour  would  be  2.5  cents. 

The  cost  of  acetylene  gas  lighting  is  somewhat  higher  than 
gasoline-machine  gas  lighting,  as  the  following  calculation  shows : 

One  pound  of  calcium  carbide  yields  on  the  average  4.5  cubic 
feet  of  gas  and  costs  4  cents  (when  one  ton  of  carbide  is  sold  at 
$80.00,  which  is  approximately  the  present  price). 


190  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

An  acetylene  burner  uses  per  hour  from  0.5  to  0.7  cubic  foot 
of  gas,  and  gives  a  light  of  about  25  candlepower,  hence  the 
cost  per  candlepower-hour  is  equal  to 

0.5  X  4  0.7  X  4 

from  -— -  to 


4.5  X  25         4.5  X  25 

or  from  0.017  to  0.0248  per  candlepower-hour  or  2.48  cents  per 
100  candlepower-hour.  In  other  words,  acetylene  gas  costs 
from  2  to  2.5  times  as  much  as  light  from  gas  machines,  always 
supposing  equal  illumination. 

Irrespective  of  the  candlepower  developed,  acetylene  gas 
costs,  according  to  Dr.  Pond, 

0.5  cent  per  hour,  if  carbide  costs  5  cents  per  Ib. 
0.45  cent  per  hour,  if  carbide  costs  4.5  cents  per  Ib. 
0.4  cent  per  hour,  if  carbide  costs  4  cents  per  Ib. 

For  comparison,  give  the  cost  of  city  gas,  burnt  in  an  open 
5-cubic-foot-per-hour  flat-flame  burner,  which  is, 

0.5  cent  per  hour,  when  gas  costs  $1.00  per  1000  cu.  ft. 
0.625  cent  per  hour,  when  gas  costs  $1.25  per  1000  cu.  ft. 
0.75  cent  per  hour,  when  gas  costs  $1.50  per  1000  cu.  ft. 

According  to  the  same  authority,  the  following  are  the  average 
costs  for  different  illuminants,  viz.: 

City  gas,  burnt  in  Argand  burner,  3.9  to  4.2  cents  per  100 
candle-hours  with  gas  at  1.25  per  1000  cubic  feet. 

Gasoline  gas,  burnt  in  Argand  burner,  3.1  cents  per  100  candle- 
power-hour. 

Electric  incandescent  lighting,  from  3.1  to  6.2  cents  per  100 
candlepower-hour. 

Acetylene  lighting  from  1.5  to  2.0  cents  per~100  candlepower- 
hour. 

Cost  of  Various  Illuminants. 

All  tabulated  statements  regarding  the  cost  of  various  methods 
of  lighting  must,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  only  approximate, 
first,  on  account  of  the  cost  of  the  crude  material  used  as  illumi- 
nant,  which  fluctuates  in  different  cities  and  countries;  second, 
on  account  of  the  varying  estimated  intensity  of  the  flames, 
and  thirdly,  because  of  the  fact  that  there  are  several  units  used 
in  determining  illumination.  The  most  common  modern  stand- 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  191 

ard  is  the  Hefner  lamp,  which  is  equivalent  to  0.817  normal 
candle  power  as  formerly  in  vogue. 

According  to  a  German  publication,  called  "  Gas  Light,"  the 
different  usual  illuminants  range  in  the  following  relative  order 
of  cost,  the  one  on  top  of  the  list  being  the  highest,  and  the  one 
at  the  bottom  the  lowest: 

Stearine  candle. 

Oil  lamp  with  round  wick. 

Flat-flame  gas  burner. 

Electric  incandescent  carbon  lamp. 

Argand  gas  burner. 

Alcohol  incandescent  mantle  lamp. 

Electric  incandescent  lamp  with  metallic  filament. 

Acetylene  gas  flame. 

Electric  arc  lamp. 

Benzine  lamp. 

Mercury  vapor  lamp. 

Incandescent  Welsbach  gas  lamp. 

Professor  D.  E.  Jones,  quoted  in  O'Connor's  "  Gas  Engineer's 
Pocket  book,"  gives  the  following  table  of  relative  cost  of  differ- 
ent illuminants,  stated  in  the  number  of  candlepower-hours 
which  can  be  provided  at  the  same  cost,  viz. : 

Candlepower-hours 

Wax  candle 33 

Stearine  candle 77 

Incandescent  electric  lamp    .        .   . 440 

Coal  gas  in  slit  burner .  625 

Acetylene  and  air  slit  burner  .    .    .    . 716 

Oil  gas      ....        1660 

Water  gas  and  benzine 1666 

Large  petroleum  lamp 2250 

Welsbach  burner  with  coal  gas 2300 

Electric  arc  light 2322 

Welsbach  burner  with  water  gas - 4350 

In  order  to  compare  different  illuminants,  it  is  necessary,  not 
merely  to  take  the  cost  of  the  light  per  hour,  but  to  consider 
the  intensity  of  light,  or  the  candlepower  obtained  per  hour. 
According  to  Professor  Leonhard  Weber,  Professor  Fischer  and 
D.  Beutsch,  three  German  authorities  on  illumination,  the 


192  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

following  table  of  the  cost  of  various  illuminants  has  been  com- 
piled by  me: 

TABLE  OF  COST  OF  ILLUMINATION  PER  100  CANDLEPOWER- 

HOUR. 

Cents  per  100  candlepower-hours 

Wax  candles .     from  77  to  118 

Sperm  candles .    from  38  to  67 . 5 

Tallow  candles from  40  to  58 

Stearine  candles from  41.5  to  50.5 

Paraffine  candles      from  17.5  to  34.75 

Colza  oil .    . 16.8 

Colza  oil  burnt  in  Carcel  lamp 10.3 

Aerogen  gas .    .    . 12.5 

Coal  gas  burnt  in  union-jet  burner from  9  to  36 

(or  from  10  to  15,  according  to  some) 

Benzine  lamp .    .    . .       7.5 

Kerosene  Argand  lamp 6 . 00 

Argand  gas  burner .    .    .    from  3 . 6  to  9 

Coal  gas  burnt  in  bat's- wing  burner from  3  to  6.25 

Incandescent  electric  lamp   . from  3.75  to  5.45 

(also  from  6 . 2  to  7 . 5) 

Kerosene  lamp,  small     ".    .    .    .     3.00 

Coal  gas,  in  Siemens  regenerative  burner from  1.6  to  2  and  2.5 

Kerosene  lamp,  large,  burning  solar  oil from  1.1  to  1.5  and  2 

Acetylene  gas  lamp      from  1.63,  1.92,  2,  up  to  3 

Electric  arc  lamp     from  1 . 0  to  1 . 5  and  even  3 

Wolfram  incandescent  electric  lamp      1.1 

Alcohol  incandescent  lamp from  1.25  to  2.25 

Incandescent  mantle  lamp 0.9 

(also  as  low  as  0.65) 
Inverted  incandescent  gas  lamp     0.4 

The  cost  of  incandescent  electric  lighting,  derived  from  a 
central  station,  not  from  isolated  plants ,  is  about  as  follows: 

A  16-candle power  lamp  uses  55  watts;  1000  watt-hours,  or  1 
kilowatt-hour,  cost  at  present  in  New  York  10  cents,  or  50  watt- 
hours  0.5  cent;  therefore  100  candlepower-hours  cost  3.1  cents; 
if  1  kilowatt-hour  costs  20  cents,  100  candlepower-hours  cost 
6.2  cents. 

Illumination  with  the  incandescent  carbon  filament  lamp  costs, 
therefore,  1.5  to  7  times  as  much  as  gasoline  gas,  and  5  to  6 
times  as  much  as  incandescent  gas  lighting. 

In  this  connection,  however,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  improved  electric  incandescent  lamps,  such  as  the  Nernst, 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  193 

Tantalum,  Osmium,  Wolfram,  and  Tungsten  lamps  use  a  much 
smaller  amount  of  current. 

While  1  kilowatt  gives  300  candlepower-hours  in  carbon 
incandescent  lamps  (3.5  watt-hours  per  candle  power-hour),  it 
gives : 


About      1.5 


600-620  candlepower-hours  in  the  Nernst  lamps 

600-620  candlepower-hours  in   the   Tantalum 
,  I  watt-hours  per 

candle  power- 


660-670    candlepower-hours    in    the    Osmium 

lamps; 

910  candlepower-hours  in  the  Wolfram  lamps; 
1000  candlepower-hours  in  the  Tungsten  lamp. 


hour. 


REQUIREMENTS  OF  NATIONAL  BOARD  OF  FIRE  UNDER- 
WRITERS TO  INSURE  SAFETY  IN  THE  USE  OF  GAS 
MACHINES. 

First.  The  vault  or  gas  house  to  be  removed  from  the  premises  insured 
the  distance  required,  viz.,  from  40  to  50  feet  for  small  buildings,  and 
from  50  to  70  feet  for  large  structures. 

Second.  The  machine  and  all  the  apparatus  to  be  made  of  good  mate- 
rials and  in  a  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner. 

Third.  All  the  apparatus  containing  gasoline  or  other  inflammable 
fluid,  or  any  gas  holder,  is  to  be  placed  in  a  vault  outside  the  building  or 
premises  to  be  insured. 

Fourth.  Stopcocks  must  be  placed  on  both  the  gas  and  air  pipes  near 
the  machine  in  the  vault,  and  also  on  the  gas  pipe  within  the  building, 
and  on  the  air  pipe  near  the  air  pump  when  the  pump  is  in  the  cellar  of 
building. 

Fifth.  The  vent  pipe  and  the  filling  pipe  are  to  be  so  arranged  that 
one  cannot  be  opened  without  opening  both. 

Sixth.  All  the  main  gas  pipes  leading  to  the  premises  lighted  must 
have  an  inclination  towards  the  gas  machine,  so  as  to  return  all  the  con- 
densation that  may  take  place  in  the  pipes. 

Seventh.  The  premises  to  be  lighted  must  be  securely  piped,  the  pipes 
thoroughly  tested  by  competent  persons  before  the  gas  is  let  on,  and  the 
pipes  so  put  up  as  to  avoid,  as  much  as  possible,  all  accumulation  of  any 
condensation  that  may  occur  inside  the  building  lighted. 


194  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Eighth.  Particular  inquiries  are  to  be  made  as  to  the  competency  of 
the  persons  who  are  to  have  charge  of  filling  the  machine,  and  to  ascer- 
tain if  they  are  informed  as  to  the  importance  of  having  the  vent  open 
and  the  air  pump  shut  off  whilst  the  machine  is  being  filled  with  fluid, 
or  of  the  great  danger  of  using  a  light  in  or  near  the  gas  house  or  vault. 

Ninth.  No  barrels  containing  gasoline  or  other  like  fluid,  or  from 
which  gasoline  has  recently  been  emptied  (yet  full  of  vapor),  are  to  be 
allowed  to  be  kept  in  any  cellar,  barn,  shed,  or  outbuilding  where  other 
property  is  kept,  or  where  there  is  a  liability  to  use  a  fire  or  light. 

Tenth.    In  case  the  air  pump  of  the  machine  is  placed  in  the  cellar  of 
the  building,  an  automatic  check  valve  is  to  be  inserted  in  the  air  pipe 
to  prevent  the  backward  flow  and  escape  of  gas  through  the  pump  into  the  • 
cellar,  or  the  pump  is  to  be  constructed  and  set  so  that  the  air  supplying 
it  is  drawn  through  an  induction  pipe  leading  from  without  the  building. 


REQUIREMENTS   OF   NATIONAL   BOARD   OF   FIRE  UNDER- 
WRITERS FOR   A   STANDARD   ACETYLENE   GENERATOR. 

First.  The  generator  and  gas  holder  must  be  constructed  either  of 
iron  or  steel  capable  of  resisting  an  internal  pressure  of  twenty  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  and  if  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  they  must  be  constructed 
with  lapped  joints  double  riveted.  Wrought  iron  or  steel  must  be  used 
for  the  construction  of  the  gas  holder.  It  shall  be  permissible  for  genera- 
tors to  be  made  of  cast  iron  when  from  their  design  wrought  iron  or  steel 
cannot  be  used. 

-'.7 

Second.  The  generator  and  gas  holder  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
entirely  freed  of  air  before  the  gas  is  turned  into  the  service  pipe. 

Third.  The  generator  must  be  so  designed  that  it  can  be  supplied  with 
calcium  carbide,  and  the  residuum  be  withdrawn  without  the  escape  of 
gas  or  the  admission  of  air. 

Fourth.  No  device  or  attachment  facilitating  or  permitting  mixture  of 
air  with  the  gas  prior  to  consumption  shall  be  allowed. 

Fifth.  The  generator  must  be  so  arranged  that  gas  will  be  automati- 
cally produced,  and  only  in  such  quantities  as  immediate  consumption 
demands.  The  gas  holder  must  be  limited  in  its  capacity  to  meet  these 
requirements. 

Sixth.  The  generator  and  gas  holder  must  be  provided  with  a  water 
seal  having  an  automatic  attachment  to  the  water  supply,,  insuring  a. 
constant  level  of  the  seal. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  195 

Seventh.  Apparatus  in  which  gas  is  generated  by  a  small  quantity  of 
water  falling  upon  calcium  carbide  must  be  so  arranged  that  not  more 
than  five  pounds  of  calcium  carbide  can  be  in  contact  with  water  at  the 
same  time. 

Eighth.  All  apparatus  must  be  so  arranged  that  it  cannot  generate  gas 
at  a  pressure  in  excess  of  that  due  to  a  five-inch  column  of  water.  A 
safety  water  seal,  which  shall  not  exceed  that  limit,  and  also  a  pressure 
gauge,  must  be  attached  to  the  generator.  An  escape  pipe  of  not  less 
than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  must  be  connected  with  the 
water  seal,  and  discharge  into  the  open  air  above  the  roof  of  the  generator 
building.  The  water  seal  of  the  gas  holder  must  not  be  less  than  nine 
inches. 

Ninth.  Each  gas  holder  must  be  connected  by  at  least  one  and  one- 
half-inch  escape  pipe,  through  which  the  gas  holder  can  be  freed  of  air, 
and  through  which  the  gas  can  be  conveyed  and  discharged  with  safety 
into  the  open  air  above  the  roof  of  the  generator  building.  The  escape 
and  gas  service  pipes  must  be  connected  by  means  of  a  two-way  cock 
located  at  the  gas  holder.  A  stop  valve  must  be  placed  on  the  supply 
pipe  at  the  place  where  it  enters  the  inside  of  the  building  to  be  lighted. 

No  stop-cock  or  shut-off  valve  other  than  the  two-way  cock  above 
provided  for  shall  be  placed  in  the  gas  pipe  between  the  generator  and 
the  service  pipe,  except  at  a  point  between  the  safety  water  seal  and  the 
gas  holder. 

Tenth.  The  generating  and  gas-holding  apparatus  and  the  surplus  of 
calcium  carbide  must,  in  all  cases,  be  placed  in  an  outside  building,  built 
and  located  as  prescribed  in  the  requirements  for  their  installation. 

Eleventh.  To  be  approved,  acetylene  generators  must  conform  to  the 
foregoing  standard,  and  plans  and  specifications  in  detail  of  such  appara- 
tus must  be  submitted  to  the  insurance  organization  having  jurisdiction 
over  the  territory  in  which  such  apparatus  is  to  be  installed,  for  approval 
by  an  inspector  duly  authorized  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, with  whom  a  copy  of  such  plans  and  specifications  must  be  filed. 
If  the  plans  are  approved,  a  special  examination  of  the  generating  appa- 
ratus will  be  made  (at  the  expense  of  the  applicant),  and  if  it  is  found  to 
be  in  compliance  with  the  standard,  a  certificate  of  approval  will  be 
issued. 

PERMIT  FOR  THE  USE  OF  ACETYLENE   GAS. 

Permission  is  hereby  granted  for  the  use  of  acetylene  gas  on  the  prem- 
ises described  in  this  policy,  provided  the  apparatus  for  generating  the 

same  has  been  first  approved  by ,  the  duly  authorized  inspector 

of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  is  installed  in  accordance 
with  the  following  requirements: 


196  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  INSTALLATION  AND  USE 
OF  ACETYLENE  GAS. 

First.  The  generating  and  gas-holding  apparatus,  when  installed  for 
lighting  buildings  in  the  closely  built-up  portions  of  towns  and  cities, 
must  be  located  in  an  outside,  fireproof,  and  well-ventilated  building.  In 
constructing  said  building,  its  floor  must  be  raised  above  the  grade  upon 
which  it  is  located,  and  suitable  drainage  be  provided.  Ventilation  is 
to  be  obtained  by  air  passing  from  the  outside  of  the  building  through 
suitable  inlets  in  the  floor,  and  by  a  pipe  not  less  than  six  inches  in  diame- 
ter, at  the  roof,  into  which  the  escape  pipes  from  the  gas  holder  must 
discharge.  The  said  ventilating  pipe  must  extend  at  least  four  feet 
above  the  roof  of  the  generator  building,  and  must  be  topped  with  a 
guard  cap,  and  if  there  be  any  building  within  ten  feet  of  said  pipe,  then 
the  ventilating  pipe  must  be  carried  four  feet  above  the  roof  of  the  higher 
building. 

Second.  The  dimensions  of  the  generator  building  must  be  confined 
to  the  requirements  of  the  apparatus  and  a  limited  surplus  supply  (here- 
inafter mentioned)  of  calcium  carbide,  and  the  building  shall  be  located 
as  follows : 

(a)  For  generators  having  a  capacity  of  not  over  twenty-five  pounds 
of  calcium  carbide,  and,  in  addition,  one  hundred  pounds  of  surplus 
calcium  carbide  —  not  less  than  ten  feet  from  other  buildings. 

(b)  For  generators  having  a  capacity  not  exceeding  one   hundred 
pounds,  and,  in  addition,  not  over  five  hundred  pounds  of  surplus  calcium 
carbide  —  not  less  than  twenty-five  feet  from  other  buildings. 

Third.  When  the  installation  is  to  be  used  for  lighting  detached  or 
isolated  property,  it  must  conform  to  the  above  requirements  in  all 
respects,  save  that  the  generator  and  its  attachments  may  be  placed  in 
a  non-fireproof  building,  which  shall  be  located  not  less  than  twenty-five 
feet  from  insurable  property,  except  by  special  permission  to  the  contrary 
in  any  case. 

Fourth.  A  special  permit  must  be  obtained  from  the  authorized  inspec- 
tor of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for  the  installation  of 
generating  apparatus,  having  a  capacity  in  excess  of  one  hundred  pounds 
of  calcium  carbide,  and  for  the  keeping  of  a  surplus  supply  of  calcium 
carbide  in  excess  of  five  hundred  pounds. 

Fifth.  Generators  must  be  supplied  with  calcium  carbide  and  the 
residuum  be  removed  without  the  use  of  artificial  light.  All  acetylene 
gas  generating  apparatus  should  be  in  charge  of  persons  properly 
instructed  in  their  management. 


The  Lighting  of  Country  Houses  197 

Sixth.  No  artificial  light  shall  be  used  inside  of  the  building  in  which 
the  gas  is  generated,  and  no  heat  except  steam. 

Seventh.  The  residuum  of  the  calcium  carbide,  when  removed  from 
the  generator,  must  be  deposited  outside  of  the  building  remote  from  all 
combustible  material. 

Eighth.  Calcium  carbide  must  be  packed  in  screwed-top,  air-  and 
water-tight  metal  packages  of  not  over  one  hundred  pounds  each,  and 
each  package  must  be  conspicuously  marked  "  Calcium  Carbide,  Keep 
Dry."  The  packages  must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  insure  the  handling 
of  the  same  without  rupture,  and  they  must  be  kept  under  cover  at  all 
times. 

Ninth.  Bicycle  and  other  portable  lamps,  in  which  acetylene  gas  is 
generated,  and  supplied  direct  to  burners,  unless  in  compliance  with  fore- 
going requirements,  are  prohibited,  and  will  not  be  approved  until  such 
lamps  are  so  constructed  that  they  will  cease  to  generate  gas  immediately 
upon  the  extinguishment  of  the  flame,  thereby  securing  a  safeguard  which 
is  absolutely  necessary;  the  keeping  on  insured  premises,  or  immedi- 
ately adjacent  thereto,  of  calcium  carbide,  either  in  the  crude  state  or  in 
cartridges  for  portable  lamps,  will  not  be  approved  unless  same  is  kept  in 
hermetically  sealed  metal  packages,  and  in  quantity  not  to  exceed  two 
pounds  in  all. 

In  considering  the  specifications  herewith  submitted  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  "  Standard  "  acetylene  generator,  the  committee  has  so  framed 
the  stipulated  conditions  as  to  cover  the  essential  of  safety  as  a  fire- 
hazard,  and  yet  leave  such  wide  scope  as  to  the  form  and  design  of  any 
such  device,  as  to  avoid  imposing  upon  the  manufacturer  of  the  same 
any  unusual  mechanical  or  structural  difficulties,  or  in  any  marked  degree 
to  restrict  the  range  of  the  type  or  class  of  such  apparatus. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE    RELATIONS    BETWEEN    GAS    COMPANIES  AND    GAS 
CONSUMERS. 

ONLY  a  little  over  a  century  has  passed  since  the  birth  of  the 
gas  industry,  yet  we  already  find  gas  lighting,  in  some  instances, 
being  supplanted  and  displaced  by  the  electric  lighting.  Even 
a  casual  observer  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  fact  that  electric 
illumination  has  recently  become  very  popular;  but  does  this 
mean  that  gas  lighting  is  entirely  doomed?  Has  not,  on  the 
contrary,  the  gas  industry  profited  by  the  advent  of  the  new 
system,  and  is  it  not  a  fact  that  the  consumption  of  gas  has 
increased  in  recent  years  instead  of  diminishing? 

At  the  time  when  the  electric  lighting  was  first  brought  to 
public  notice,  Mr.  W.  H.  Preece,  in  a  lecture  on  "  Recent  Wonders 
of  Light,"  delivered  in  1880  before  the  London  Society  of  Arts, 
uttered  the  following  prophetic  words:  "  Gas  is  a  magnificent 
thing  in  itself,  but  one  of  the  great  advantages  of  gas  has  been 
that  it  has  driven  the  candle  makers  and  oil-lamp  manufacturers 
to  give  us  hundred -fold  better  things  than  they  did  before,  and 
so  the  introduction  of  electricity,  if  it  does  nothing  else,  will 
compel  our  gas  engineers  to  produce  gas-lighting  apparatus  as 
far  superior  to  those  of  our  youth  as  these  ordinary  lamps  are 
to  the  oil  lamps  of  the  Greeks." 

Gas  lamps  took  the  place  of  candles  arid  oil  lamps,  and  are  now, 
in  some  cases,  replaced  by  electric  arc  and  incandescent  lamps, 
yet  in  each  case  the  older  illuminant  has  profited  instead  of 
suffered.  Doubtless,  one  result  of  the  improvements  in  methods 
of  illumination  has  been  a  more  lavish  use  of  light,  and  the  setting 
up  of  a  higher  standard  in  street  as  well  as  in  domestic  lighting. 
With  the  increased  requirements,  therefore,  each  kind  of  artificial 
light  benefited  by  the  advent  of  its  successor,  competitor  and 
rival. 

Electric  lighting,  in  particular,  awakened  the  managers  of  the 
gas  industry  to  activity,  and  a  higher  quality  of  gas  at  reduced 
cost,  better  gas-fittings,  more  efficient  gas  burners  and  gas  lamps 

198 


Gas  Companies  and  Gas  Consumers  199 

have  been  produced,  demonstrating  to  a  greater  extent  than  ever 
before  the  possibilities  of  the  " light  without  a  wick,"  created 
from  "the  spirit  of  coal." 

Gas  lighting  has  in  the  past  been  of  incalculable  benefit  to 
mankind;  its  many  advantages  are  at  present  more  than  ever 
enjoyed  in  the  household,  in  the  office,  and  in  the  workshop, 
and  notwithstanding  contrary  statements  by  those  interested  in 
the  development  of  the  rival  system,  it  is  my  belief  that  for  a 
long  time  to  come,  gas  will  not  only  hold  its  own,  but  make  still 
further  progress.  The  twentieth  century  will,  .doubtless,  ulti- 
mately become  the  age  of  electricity,  but  the  present  is  the  era 
of  gas. 

Having  thus  briefly  glanced  at  the  past,  present,  and  future  of 
gas  lighting,  let  us  consider  what  should  be  done  to  strengthen 
the  future  position  of  gas  lighting  in  view  of  the  rapid  strides 
made  by  its  chief  rival,  electric  lighting. 

An  impartial  observer  cannot  help  admitting  that  the  future 
'of  the  gas  industry  must,  to  a  great  extent,  depend  upon  the 
relations  between  gas  companies  and  gas  consumer,  which,  as  is 
well  knowTi,  are  not  always  as  pleasant  as  they  might  be. 

The  gas  companies  are  corporations  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  manufacturing  and  selling  illuminating  or  fuel  gas  to  a  com- 
munity or  to  consumers;  the  gas  works  are  establishments  or 
works  for  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  and  fuel  gas. 

The  bulk  of  the  gas-consuming  public  is  lamentably  indiffer- 
ent or  ignorant,  or  both,  about  the  subject  of  gas  manufacture 
and  gas  lighting;  hence,  the  proper  use  of  gas  in  the  household 
is  little  understood.  A  few  commendable  instances  excepted, 
gas  companies  have  made  no  effort  whatever  to  keep  house- 
holders and  gas  consumers  informed  on  the  subject.  Instead 
of  trying  to  gain  the  consumer's  confidence,  many  gas  companies 
and  their  employees  have  persistently  pursued  the  erroneous 
policy  of  surrounding  themselves  and  everything  pertaining  to 
their  business  with  an  air  of  profound  mystery.  Worse  than 
this,  in  many  instances  those  employees  of  a  gas  company  who 
come  into  closer  contact  with  the  public,  often  throw  a  veil  of 
secrecy  about  the  subject  with  a  view  only  of  hiding  their  own 
ignorance.  All  this  is  much  to  be  deprecated,  for  as  a  natural 
result  the  consumer,  already  full  of  prejudices  and  dissatisfac- 
tion, becomes  still  more  suspicious  and  biased.  It  would  seem 
to  me  as  if  the  best  interests  of  gas  companies  demand  that  they 


200  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

enlighten  the  public,  and  that  they  help  them  in  every  possible 
way  to  consume  the  product  of  the  gas  works  in  the  best  manner. 
I  quote  in  full  a  recent  editorial  from  the  New  York  Times, 
which  is  to  the  point : 

"  Gas  companies  do  not  understand,  and  have  never  understood  how 
to  deal  with  the  general  public,  or  appreciated  the  value  of  trying  to 
satisfy  the  consumer.  They  receive  complaints  with  indifference  and 
protests  with  something  very  like  insolence. 

"  Even  when  they  know,  or  have  good  grounds  for  suspecting,  what 
the  trouble  is  which  causes  dissatisfaction,  they  seem  to  think  it  beneath 
their  dignity,  as  a  great  corporation,  to  do  anything  or  say  anything 
satisfactory.  The  clerk  behind  the  grilled  window  who  is  the  recipient 
of  a  complaint  that  the  bills  are  increasing  without  greater  satisfaction 
to  the  consumer  in  added  illumination,  quickly  falls  into  the  attitude  of 
his  employers  and  feels  perfectly  at  liberty  to  be  insolent,  if  not  deliber- 
ately insulting. 

"  The  tardy  zeal  which  some  of  the  local  offices  of  the  gas  combine 
show  in  investigating  complaints  of  consumers,  and  the  discovery  that" 
most  of  them  can  be  remedied  by  a  little  intelligent  attention  to  condi- 
tions existing  in  the  pipes  or  at  the  burners  of  the  dissatisfied  consumer 
comes  too  late  to  quickly  undo  the  cumulative  grievance  of  years  of 
neglect." 

Why  gas  companies  should  not  make  efforts  to  establish,  or  to 
maintain,  pleasanter  relations  with  their  consumers  has  often 
been  a  matter  of  wonder  to  me.  The  interests  of  the  gas  manu- 
facturers and  of  the  gas  consumers  are  mutual  and  should  go 
hand-in-hand;  therefore,  companies  should  constantly  strive  to 
dispel  any  bitter  feeling,  to  remove  all  prejudices,  and  to  avoid 
as  far  as  possible  all  friction.  The  welfare  of  gas  companies 
demands  that  they  should  not  be  indifferent  to  the  wishes  of  the 
consumer.  It  is  a  fact,  capable  of  easy  demonstration,  that 
where  a  company  or  its  employees  have  taken  the  trouble  to 
instruct  the  consumer  how  he  can  make  the  best  possible  use  of 
gas,  or  how  he  can  obtain  a  maximum  amount  of  illumination 
from  the  burning  of  a  given  quantity  of  gas,  an  increased  con- 
sumption of  gas  resulted  for  the  company. 

What  then  can  gas  companies  do  to  bring  about  a  better 
feeling  between  themselves  and  their  consumers?  First  of  all, 
gas  companies  should  attend  to  the  complaints  of  the  consumers. 
Nothing  within  the  bounds  of  reason  should  be  left  undone  to 
satisfy  them  and  thereby  to  retain  or  regain  their  confidence. 


Gas  Companies  and  Gas  Consumers  201 

By  far  the  majority  of  complaints  are,  first,  about  bad  gas  or 
deficient  light,  and  second,  about  excessive  gas  bills.  The  latter 
are  invariably  attributed  to  the  inaccuracy  of  the  company's 
gas  meters,  or  to  errors  of  the  clerks  in  making  out  the  monthly 
gas  bills,  while  the  deficiency  of  light  is  usually  laid  to  the  bad 
or  poor  quality  of  the  gas  or  to  lack  of  pressure  in  the  gas  mains. 
Occasionally,  consumers  grumble  about  the  flickering  of  the 
light,  about  hissing  and  noisy  flames,  about  the  breaking  of  gas 
globes,  caused  by  gas  flames  with  ragged  edges,  about  the  vitiated 
air,  about  immoderate  heat  and.  the  injurious  effects  of  gas 
lighting  upon  health  and  comfort,  and  about  the  destructive 
effects  of  gas  upon  the  decorations,  pictures,  books  and  furniture, 
the  walls  and  ceilings  of  rooms. 

In  some  cases,  no  doubt,  there  is  just  ground  for  these  com- 
plaints. The  gas  company  should  then  endeavor  to  remove  the 
causes,  if  practicable,  and  should  make  constant  efforts  in  the 
interest  of  the  consumer.  But,  as  often  as  not,  the  complaints 
of  consumers  arise  from  their  own  lack  of  knowledge,  or  care- 
lessness, or  indifference.  Very  frequently,  too,  the  troubles 
complained  of  are  a  result  of  the  stupidity  or  cupidity  of  the  gas- 
fitter  or  the  builder,  and  an  impartial  investigation  would  demon- 
strate that  the  complaints  can  easily  be  traced  to  one  or  more 
of  the  following  defects,  over  which  the  gas  company  seldom  has 
any  control,  viz.:  the  use  of  gas  piping  of  inadequate  size,  the 
improper  running  of  gas  pipes,  the  use  of  bad,  cheap,  or  unsuit- 
able burners,  or  good  burners  becoming  obstructed  or  worn  out; 
the  use  of  ill-contrived  and  light-obstructing  brackets  and 
chandeliers  with  tubing  of  insufficient  size;  the  use  of  globes, 
with  narrow  bottom  opening,  made  of  light-obstructing  material, 
and  supported  by  heavy  globe  holders;  or  the  failure  of  the  gas 
light  may  be  due,  in  districts  where  a  high  pressure  necessarily 
prevails,  to  the  omission  of  pressure-reducing  appliances. 

Consumers  of  gas  should  inquire  into  the  subject  of  gas  light- 
ing without  bias,  and  gas  companies  should  endeavor  to  remove 
all  manner  of  prejudices  generally  arising  from  ignorance  or 
suspicion.  Among  misconceptions  of  consumers,  the  most 
difficult  to  deal  with  is  the  prejudice  against  the  "lying  gas 
meter."  This  is  largely  due  to  want  of  knowledge  as  to  its 
construction  and  mode  of  operation.  It  is  increased  by  the 
many  stories  of  the  vagaries  of  gas  meters,  disseminated  by  the 
daily  press.  Many  consumers  imagine  that  they  are  completely 


202  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

at  the  mercy  of  the  gas  meter,  or  that  -gas  companies  charge 
them  whatever  they  see  fit  to  charge.  It  is  needless  to  say  this 
is  a  great  mistake.  To  remove  this  deeply  rooted  prejudice,  gas 
companies  should  endeavor  to  teach  the  householder  how  to 
become  familiar  with  the  gas  meter,  and  to  encourage  his  fre- 
quent reading  of  the  index,  as  many  a  serious  misunderstanding 
may  thereby  be  prevented. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  size  of  a  consumer's  gas  bill  is  dependent 
upon  the  quantity  of  gas  consumed  only,  and  with  this  a  gas 
company  has  very  little  to  do.  As  regards  gas  bills,  wrong  state- 
ments are  rendered  much  less  often  than  the  average  gas  con- 
sumer supposes.  The  process  of  making  out  the  bills  is  about 
as  follows :  Once  a  month  the  meter  inspector  calls  at  the  con- 
sumers' houses,  takes  the  readings  of  the  meters,  enters  the  date 
and  the  state  of  the  meters  in  his  record  book,  and  returns  the 
same  to  the  gas  company's  office.  Then  the  clerks  in  the  office 
make  out  the  bills  by  putting  the  last  statement  just  taken  at 
the  top,  and  the  reading  of  the  previous  month  under  it.  The 
latter  amount  is  then  deducted  from  the  former,  and  the  dif- 
ference obtained  is  the  last  month's  gas  consumption.  Errors 
of  calculation  can  be  prevented  by  checking  the  figures,  and 
errors  in  the  figures  by  a  careful  comparison  of  the  previous  and 
the  present  meter  reading.  Errors  made  in  reading  the  meter 
are,  as  a  rule,  discovered  at  the  end  of  the  next  month,  it  being 
then  found  that  the  consumer  has  either  paid  in  advance  or  else 
too  little,  generally  by  an  even  1000  cubic  feet.  By  reading  his 
own  gas  meter  every  month,  or  every  week,  or  daily,  a  consumer 
has  in  his  hands  a  perfect  check  against  fraud  or  mistakes. 

Again,  a  great  deal  of  good  might  be  accomplished  if  managers 
and  officers  of  gas  companies  would  endeavor  to  correct  and 
dispel  the  numerous  popular  errors  or  fallacies  regarding  gas 
lighting.  Still  more  good  could  be  accomplished  if  gas  com- 
panies would  undertake  to  give  direct  advice  and  practical 
instruction  on  the  details  of  domestic  gas-burning  appliances, 
and  thereby  spread  the  knowledge  of  the  correct  principles  of 
gas  consumption.  Some  topics  of  interest  and  practical  value 
to  gas  consumers  are,  to  begin  with,  the  gas  meter,  its  construc- 
tion and  arrangement,  with  explanations  of  how  to  read  the 
index  of  the  same.  If  once  the  householder  becomes  familiar 
with  reading  the  gas  meter,  misunderstandings  or  disputes  about 
the  gas  bill  would  in  the  majority  of  cases  be  prevented.  Then 


Gas  Companies  and  Gas  Consumers  203 

there  is  the  gas  piping  of  buildings.  It  has  been  said  that  a  bad 
system  of  internal  gas  piping  is  the  arch  enemy  of  every  gas 
undertaking;  therefore,  gas  companies  should,  in  the  case  of 
all  new  buildings,  see  that  architects,  builders  and  gas-fitters 
follow  the  best  rules  on  gas  piping.  It  would  certainly  lead  to 
good  results  if  gas  companies  would  distribute  rules  and  regu- 
lations on  the  best  mode  of  doing  gas  piping,  on  the  methods  of 
running  the  distribution  pipes,  on  the  sizes  of  pipes,  and  the 
proper  rnanner  of  testing  gas  pipes. 

Gas  companies  should  in  this  way  try  to  exercise  some  super- 
vision over  the  consumer's  fittings,  and  also  insist  upon  the 
employment  of  responsible  and  qualified  gas-fitters.  Regarding 
gas  burners,  the  gas  companies  should  remind  consumers,  that 
even  the  best  of  burners  wear  out,  and  that  worn  out  burners 
mean  a  waste  of  gas,  also  that  burners  become  obstructed  and 
need  periodical  cleaning.  They  might,  with  advantage,  go  a 
step  farther  and  give  to  the  householder  information  regarding 
improved  burners,  or  supply  the  consumer,  either  free  or  at  a 
nominal  charge,  with  the  best  kind  of  burners  rather  than  see 
him  at  the  mercy  of  the  burner  quack.  Many  consumers, 
without  doubt,  would  welcome  any  judiciously  thrown  out  hints 
about  burners  and  lamps.  Information  about  gas  lamps  and 
gas  fixtures,  gas  globes,  globe  holders,  shades,  and  reflectors 
would  also  be  useful,  particularly  a  demonstration  of  the  advan- 
tages arising  to  householders  from  the  use  of  gas  globes  of  clear 
glass  with  wide  bottom  openings,  supported  in  shadowless 
triangles  made  of  thin  wire. 

Gas  companies  should  explain  the  object  and  use  of  gas  pressure 
regulators  and  of  volumetric  governor  burners.  In  districts 
with  excessive  gas  pressure  they  should  teach  the  gas  consumer 
the  proper  remedy  for  "  blowing  "  burners.  It  is  much  to  be 
regretted  that,  as  a  rule,  gas  companies  are  opposed  to  the  use, 
by  the  consumers,  of  pressure  regulators  of  any  kind,  except  the 
ordinary  check  burners  which  are  notoriously  unreliable,  while 
they  themselves  make  extended  use  of  the  best  volumetric 
governor  burners  on  their  street  lamps.  The  use  of  pressure 
regulators  should  be  discouraged  only  where  the  house  piping 
is  quite  insufficient  in  size. 

Much  may  be  accomplished  by  employees  of  the  gas  companies 
giving  instruction  to  consumers  about  the  proper  management 
and  use  of  gas.  Gas  is  wasted  in  houses  in  many  ways,  and 


204  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

children  as  well  as  servants  are  proverbially  careless  or  thought- 
less in  the  use  of  gas,  keeping  gas  burning  many  times  when  not 
wanted.  Again,  the  householder's  attention  should  be  called  to 
defective  gas  keys,  such  as  the  "  all  around  "  keys  without  stop- 
pins,  which  often  cause  escapes  of  gas  and  may  lead  to  serious 
accidents.  There  is  not  a  gas  consumer  who  would  not  thank- 
fully accept  advice  upon  such  points,  if  it  were  given  con- 
scientiously and  in  a  proper  manner. 

Many  hints  may  be  thrown  out  regarding  the  maintenance  of 
gas-fittings,  the  cleaning  and  renewal  of  burners,  the  cleaning 
of  chimneys  and  globes,  the  greasing  and  tightening  of  the  gas 
keys,  the  refilling  of  the  water  joint  in  hydraulic  gasoliers,  and 
kindred  subjects.  The  annoying  and  aggravating  irregularities 
sometimes  occurring  in  the  gas  supply,  and  the  proper  way  to 
remedy  each  trouble,  should  be  lucidly  explained.  The  con- 
sumer's attention  should  be  called  to  objectionable  gas  leaks, 
whether  in  the  pipes  and  fittings,  or  in  the  fixture  joints,  the 
gas  keys,  or  the  burners,  and  the  remedy  should  be  given.  All 
necessary  and  usual  precautions  against  danger  from  fire  should 
likewise  be  explained  and  commented  upon. 

Useful  hints  may  be  given  regarding  the  advantage,  economy, 
and  convenience  of  gas  cooking  and  gas  heating  appliances. 
The  revenue  of  a  gas  company  will  be  increased  where  the  day 
use  of  gas  is  encouraged.  In  all  these  matters  gas  consumers 
must  be  aided  and  guided,  and  gas  companies  should  not  lose 
the  opportunity  of  doing  this,  as  the  continued  welfare  of  their 
business  depends  upon  it.  Many  a  grumbling  consumer  may 
be  turned  into  a  friend  of  the  company  by  timely  advice,  given 
in  a  discreet  manner.  Gas  managers,  gas  inspectors,  and  the 
gas-fitters  employed  by  the  gas  company  should  be  well 
informed  on  these  topics,  so  as  to  be  able  to  give  intelligent 
advice  to  the  consumer. 

While  there  are  several  ways  in  which  gas  companies  may 
educate  the  consumers,  one  of  the  best  consists  in  the  arrange- 
ment by  the  gas  company,  at  their  office,  of  a  general  exhibition 
of  gas  apparatus.  In  this  exhibition  should  be  included  a  col- 
lection of  the  best  gas-lighting  burners,  also  samples  of  governor 
burners,  of  well-shaped  glass  globes  and  shadowless  globe  holders, 
of  improved  modern  regenerative  and  incandescent  gas  lamps,  etc. 

A  good  gas-pressure  regulator  should  be  shown  in  practical 
operation,  likewise  an  exhibition  meter,  constructed  of  glass, 


Gas  Companies  and  Gas  Consumers  205 

so  as  to  show  the  interior  construction  and  working  mechanism 
of  the  gas  meter.  Finally,  there  should  be  exhibited  the  best 
examples  of  gas  cooking  ranges,  of  apparatus  for  heating  water, 
for  heating  laundry  irons,  also  gas  heating  stoves,  incandescent 
fireplace  heaters,  and  terra  cotta  gas  logs.  All  of  these  appli- 
ances should  be  fitted  up  with  gas  connections  ready  for  light- 
ing up,  in  order  to  show  to  the  public  their  mode  of  operation, 
and  their  advantages  and  utility. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  a  well-arranged  show  room, 
containing  a  judiciously  selected  stock  of  the  best  domestic  gas 
appliances,  must  have  a  powerful  influence  in  popularizing  the 
use  of  gas.  Manufacturers  of  gas  apparatus  should  aid  the  gas 
companies  in  this  matter,  as  such  a  display  would  tend  to  create 
an  increased  demand  for  improved  gas  appliances.  In  connec- 
tion with  such  exhibitions,  popular  lectures  might  be  arranged 
on  various  subjects,  such  as  the  use  of  gas  for  lighting,  cooking 
by  gas,  with  demonstrations  of  practical  cookery,  on  gas  heating 
appliances,  on  gas  motors,  and  the  like.  The  gas  exhibitions 
would  prove  a  useful  medium  for  distributing  to  consumers 
tracts  or  pamphlets  upon  the  advantages  of  gas  for  light,  fuel, 
and  power  purposes,  and  containing  just  such  hints  and  general 
information  as  the  public  is  most  in  need  of.  A  liberal  dissemi- 
nation of  such  pamphlets  must  eventually  result  in  a  large 
reduction  in  the  number  of  common  complaints.  It  is  likewise 
desirable  that  printed  rules  for  gas  piping  in  new  buildings  be 
circulated  by  gas  companies  amongst  those  who  are  chiefly 
interested,  i.e.,  architects,  builders,  plumbers,  and  gas-fitters. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  if  it  would  not  be  advantageous 
to  have  the  gas  piping  in  new  buildings  done  by  the  gas  com- 
panies. After  a  careful  consideration  of  this  matter,  I  fail  to 
see  what  material  advantage,  if  any,  could  be  derived  therefrom. 
Gas  companies  necessarily  must  rely  just  as  much  as  other  con- 
tractors doing  gas  piping,  upon  the  honesty,  practical  skill,  and 
ability  of  the  mechanics,  and  in  not  a  few  instances  have  I  found 
fully  as  much  ignorance  and  carelessness  among  gas  companies' 
fitters  as  among  fitters  in  the  employment  of  the  trade.  Whether 
the  householder  gives  his  gas-piping  work  to  the  gas  company  or 
to  a  tradesman,  a  plumber  or  gas-fitter,  his  chance  for  securing 
perfect  work  lies  mainly  in  paying  a  fair  price  for  it  and  insist- 
ing upon  the  employment  of  only  competent  fitters'.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  the  best  results  may  be  secured  by  proper  supervision. 


206  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Not  a  little  of  the  ill-feeling  existing  between  gas  companies 
and  gas  consumers  is  due  to  the  disrespectful  treatment  which 
consumers  occasionally  receive  in  some  gas  offices.  Employees 
of  gas  companies,  and  in  particular  the  inspectors  of  gas  meters 
and  those  clerks  in  the  office  who  come  into  more  frequent  con- 
tact with  the  public,  should  be  required  to  be  courteous  and 
polite  in  manner  and  speech.  After  all,  the  public  have  a 
right  to  demand  at  least  the  same  fair  treatment  in  a  gas  office 
which  they  receive  by  clerks  or  salesmen  in  stores,  in  which  they 
make  the  purchases  of  the  sundry  necessaries  of  life,  and  where, 
as  a  rule,  they  are  shown  that  they  are  valued  customers.  Fully 
aware  of  the  fact  that  the  position  of  the  clerks  in  the  gas  office, 
who  receive  the  customers'  complaints,  must  often  be  a  very 
trying  one,  I  still  hold  that  the  ill-temper  of  the  clerk  should 
never  be  vented  upon  an  unoffending  customer.  Here,  as  in 
other  lines  of  business,  it  pays  to  be  patient,  obliging,  and  polite, 
and  nothing  is  gained  by  showing  even  the  slightest  sign  of 
irascibility.  Customers,  on  the  other  hand,  ought  to  bear  in 
mind  that  very  often  the  clerks  and  inspectors  of  gas  companies 
are  abused  by  the  suspicious,  the  ignorant,  the  ill-mannered 
people,  necessarily  forming  a  portion  of  the  customers  of  a  gas 
company,  and  they  should,  therefore,  condone  a  clerk's  offense  of 
sometimes  appearing  gruff,  impatient,  and  uncivil. 

In  short,  gas  companies  would  undoubtedly  be  on  better 
terms  with  consumers  if  they  had  not,  in  too  many  cases,  dis- 
regarded their  wishes.  The  enlightenment  of  the  gas  consumer 
is  of  importance,  for  even  well-educated  men  often  display  a  very 
deplorable  ignorance  and  bias  as  regards  the  use  of  gas.  The 
public  should  be  taught  that  a  gas  company's  business  is  legiti- 
mate and  that  their  dealings  are  just  as  honest  and  upright  as 
the  transactions  of  other  business  concerns.  And,  lastly,  the 
consumers  who  go  to  the  gas  company's  office  for  advice  should 
have  confidence  in  the  suggestions  made  by  the  company.  A 
proper  observance  of  what  has  been  herein  stated  would  un- 
doubtedly pave  the  way  toward  better  relations  between  gas 
companies  and  gas  consumers. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PRACTICAL  HINTS  FOR  GAS  CONSUMERS. 

1.  The  numerous  advantages  which  gas  offers,  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  both  an  economical  and  a  convenient  source  of  light, 
heat,  and  power,  are  in  themselves  sufficient  reasons  for  advising 
its  introduction  into  all  buildings,  old  as  well  as  new,  wherever 
a  supply  of  gas  is  available. 

2.  Whenever  a  new  building  is  erected,  provision  should  be 
made  for  a  gas  service,  for  it  is  cheaper  to  put  in  the  gas  con- 
nection during  the  construction  of  the  building.     Notify  the 
gas  company  and  send  in  a  written  application  for  a  gas  service- 
pipe.     In  the  majority  of  American  cities  gas  companies  tap 
their  street  mains  and  run  the  service  into  the  houses  free  of 
charge.     They  do  not  do  any  of  the  piping  for  gas  in  the  building ; 
their  service  pipe  stops  at  the  place  where  the  gas  meter  is  to 
stand. 

3.  Pipe  the  entire  building  for  gas  when  the  house  is  built. 
This  will  surely  enhance  the  value  of  the  building,  particularly 
if  you  provide  a  separate  supply  pipe  for  a  kitchen  gas  range. 
Select   a  gas-fitter,   or  a  well-recommended    and    trustworthy 
plumbing  firm,  to  do  the  piping  in  the  house.     Before  letting  the 
work  by  contract,  decide  upon  the  position  of  the  gas  meter  in 
the  cellar,  and  locate  the  main  gas  riser  or  risers  as  well  as  the 
required  gas  outlets  for  light  and  for  other  uses. 

Even  when  you  do  not  contemplate  burning  or  using  gas, 
put  in  the  main  distributing  lines  in  the  floors  to  avoid  future 
annoying  and  troublesome  cutting  of  floors  and  partitions. 

Wide-awake  landlords  having  apartments  and  dwellings  to 
let  know  from  experience  that  one  of  the  questions  asked  by 
prospective  tenants  is  whether  provision  is  made  for  a  gas 
range,  for  gas  fireplace  heaters,  for  bath  water-heaters,  etc. 

4.  If  you  give  out  the  work  of  piping  the  building  by  contract, 
use  a  good  form  of  gas-piping  specification  as  a  guarantee  for  a 
good  character  of  the  workmanship,  for  a  satisfactory  quality1 
of  pipe  and  fittings,  and  for  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  pipe 
sizes  and  their  proper  running  and  distribution. 

207 


208  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Unless  some  one  qualified  to  do  so  superintends  the  work  of 
the  gas-fitter,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  inadequate  gas  piping 
will  be  put  in,  which  surely  sooner  or  later  will  lead  to  frequent 
complaints  regarding  the  deficiency  of  the  gas  illumination. 

5.  Locate  the  gas  meter  in  an  easily  accessible  place,  not  sub- 
ject to  dampness  or  to  extremes  of  temperature,  and  where  the 
meter  will  not  be  subject  to  accidental  or  malicious  damage. 
The  gas  meter  remains  the  property  of  the  gas  company;  it  is 
solely  under  their  control,  and  the  gas  consumer  should  under 
no  circumstances  meddle  with  it.     If  he  suspects  anything  to 
be  wrong  with  the  meter,  he  should  at  once  notify  the  company. 

.Do  not  object  if  the  gas  company  sends  you  a  gas  meter  of 
what  looks  to  you  like  an  over-generous  size.  No  possible  harm 
to  you  can  result  from  this;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  insure  to 
you  a  full  supply  of  gas  to  the  lighting  fixtures  and  to  the  gas 
cooking  range,  while  it  will  not  increase  your  gas  bills,  provided 
you  exercise  care  and  judgment  in  the  management  of  gas. 

6.  In  piping  a  building  for  gas,  do  not  be  afraid  to  have  your 
gas-fitter  put  in  pipes  of  generous  size.     It  is  an  error  to  suppose 
that  this  leads  to  increased  gas  bills.     The  gas  piping,  if  done 
with  pipes  of  ample  size,  will  remain  adequate,  even  if  additions 
are  made  to  the  building.     But  even  where  the  pipes  are  larger 
than  actually  necessary,  no  harm  can  result,  nor  will  the  gas  bill 
be  increased  unduly,  whereas  piping  which  is  too  small  is  always 
detrimental  and  the  direct  cause  of  an  insufficiency  of  gas 
pressure  in  the  house  pipes. 

7.  Have  your  gas  piping  tested  after  completion  to  make 
sure  that  there  are  no  leaks,     A  comparatively  small  leak, 
amounting  to  one  cubic  foot  per  hour,  will  in  the  course  of  a  year 
cost  you 

$  7.00  when  gas  costs     $0.80  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
8.76  when  gas  costs       1.00  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
10.95  when  gas  costs       1.25  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
13.14  when  gas  costs       1.50  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
15.33  when  gas  costs       1.75  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
17.52  when  gas  costs      2.00  per  1000  cubic  feet. 
Gas  consumers  may  inform  themselves  about  the  tightness 
of  their  gas  piping  by  the  following  simple  and  easily  applied 
method:  Close  all  burners  in  the  house  and  watch  the  small 
index  hand  of  the  meter  for  an  hour.     If  the  hand  moves  during 
this  time,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  a  leak  somewhere, 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  209 

which  may  be  either  in  the  piping  or  in  the  fixtures.  Do  not 
neglect  a  gas  leak  however  small  it  may  appear.  If  the  leak 
asserts  itself  by  a  strong  odor  of  gas,  open  at  once  all  windows 
and  do  not  permit  the  use  of  open  flames  anywhere  until  after 
the  leak  is  located  and  remedied.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the 
gas  piping  in  a  building  re-tested  periodically. 

Iron  rust,  watery  vapor  and  naphthaline  accumulate  in  the 
gas  pipes  and  lodge  particularly  at  the  foot  of  risers  and  ver- 
tical branches.  Thus  they  become  the  cause  of  the  obstructions 
in  the  pipes  and  of  deficient  illumination  or  gas  supply  to  the 
fixtures.  Gas  consumers  are  advised  to  have  their  gas  pipes 
blown  out  and  cleaned  from  time  to  time.  Corrosion  takes 
place  in  the  gas  burners,  and  the  tips  break  or  wear  out.  From 
time  to  time  the  burners  should  be  cleaned  or,  where  necessary, 
replaced  by  new  ones.  Unfortunately,  not  one  gas  consumer 
in  a  hundred  will  think  about  such  matters,  nor  will  he  think 
it  worth  while  to  take  care  of  his  gas  fixtures. 

9.  When  extensions  or  additions  are  made  to  a  building,  it 
is  best  to  put  in  additional  risers,  and  also  additional  supply 
lines  in  the  cellar.  Additional  outlets  should  never  be  taken 
from  the  existing  gas  pipes  except  where  the  gas  pipes  were 
originally  put  in  with  this  in  view.  As  a  rule,  it  is  advisable 
also  to  increase  the  size  of  the  gas  meter. 

10.  Should  the  pressure  of  gas  be  excessive,  the  gas  con- 
sumer can  improve  the  illumination,  secure  steadier  flames,  and 
at  the  same  time  keep  the  gas  bill  down  by  using  a  pressure 
regulator  at  the  meter,  or  by  adopting  improved  burners  (see 
Chap.  XIV).     But  one  should  be  careful  not  to  use  pressure 
regulators  where  the  house  pipes  are  too  small.     The  disastrous 
effect  of  excessive  pressure  is  illustrated  by  the  following  experi- 
mental results:     A  burner  using  3.9  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour 
under  &  inch  gas  pressure  will  use 

5.6  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  gas  under  y$  gas  pressure; 
8.5  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  under  f$    " 
10.5  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  under  f$    "         " 

11.  Consumers  using  flat-flame  burners  should  from  time  to 
time  study  the  appearance  and  shape  of  the  flames.     Flames 
with  ragged  edges,  uneven  or  unsteady  flames,  singing,  blowing, 
or  hissing  flames  mean  a  wasteful  burning  of  gas.     Flames 
which  appear  to  be  divided  indicate  that  the  burner  requires 
cleaning. 


210  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

See  that  the  flame  from  bat's-wing  burners  is  not  too  wide,  as 
it  is  liable  to  crack  the  glass  globes.  Use  globes  of  wide  bottom 
diameter,  and  set  the  bottom  edge  of  the  globe  level  with  the 
point  at  which  the  gas  issues  from  the  burner.  The  flame  will 
be  a  great  deal  more  steady  in  this  way. 

If  they  wish  a  bright  illumination,  gas  consumers  should 
replace  their  flat-flame  burners  by  the  incandescent  mantle 
burners,  which  give  more  light  and  at  the  same  time  use  less  gas. 

12.  Modern  incandescent  mantle  burners  require  some  care 
in  their  use  and  management.     It  is  best  to  light  them  from  the 
top,  but  before  applying  the  match  or  the  taper  the  gas  cock 
should  be  turned  on  for  some  seconds.     Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  have  burnt  fragments  of  the  match  or  the  wax  from  the 
taper  drop  on  the  mantle. 

A  self-lighting  attachment  is  used  much  in  Europe  and  tends 
to  protect  the  mantle.  Should  the  flame  jump  back,  the  gas 
should  be  turned  off  and  relit.  In  portable  desk  lamps  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  break  the  mantle  in  handling  the  lamp. 

13.  Where  a  strong  light  is  required  for  a  work  table,  a 
drawing  table,  for  reading,  sewing,  etc.,  consumers  are  advised 
to  make  use  of  glass  or  mercury  reflectors,  or  of  some  of  the 
excellent  holophane  glass  shades.     Care  should  be  taken,  how- 
ever, in  all  cases  where  a  strong  light  is  used,  to  protect  the  eyes 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  light,  by  encasing  the  flame  with 
frosted  glass. 

14.  Gas  consumers  are  advised  to  study  the  manner  of  reading 
the  index  of  the  gas  meter.     The  regular  reading  of  the  meter 
index  at  periodical  intervals  will  inform  a  householder  whether 
gas  is  used  in  a  wasteful  manner.     The  reading  of  the  small 
index  on  the  meter  serves  also  to  determine  the  hourly  gas  con- 
sumption for  any  burner,  lamp,  or  for  the  gas  cooking  stove, 
the  gas  water-heater  and  the  fireplace  gas-log. 

The  reading  and  watching  of  the  small  index  hand,  when  all 
gas  keys  are  kept  turned  off,  will  show  whether  there  are  leaks, 
and  not  only  this,  but  it  will  also  indicate  the  size  of  the  leak  by 
the  volume  of  gas  registered  in  a  given  time. 

15.  Consumers,  who  unexpectedly  receive  a  very  high  gas 
bill,  are  prone  to  blame  at  once  the  " lying"  gas  meter  and  to 
claim  that  it  must  register  incorrectly.     The  better  way  would 
be  for  them  to  calmly  inquire  from  the  household  whether  any 
reasons  have  existed  for  consuming  more  gas,  to  investigate 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers 


211 


whether  children  or  servants  have  not  been  careless  in  using 
gas  wastefully;  whether  there  has  perhaps  been  more  company 
than  usual,  or  whether  perhaps  sickness  was  the  cause  for  burn- 
ing more  than  the  regular  amount  of  gas.  If  all  such  inquiries 
fail  to  give  an  explanation,  it  is  well  to  search  for  hidden  gas 
leaks.  Should  none  be  found,  notify  the  gas  company,  and 
request  that  the  gas  meter  be  removed  and  retested. 

16.  The  following  two  tables,  one  an  English  one,  and  probably 
correct  for  the  latitude  of  London,  the  other  an  American  one, 
presumably  calculated  for  the  latitude  of  New  York,  will  be 
found  extremely  useful  in  calculating  and  checking  what  the 
average  gas-lighting  bill  each  month  in  the  year  should  be, 
when  the  number  of  burners  nightly  in  use  are  noted.  A  careful 
use  of  the  tables  will  also  lead  to  a  saving  of  gas. 

TABLE  OF  NUMBER  OF  HOURS  GAS  IS  BURNED  IN  EACH 
MONTH  DURING  THE   YEAR. 

(From  Newbigging's  English  Gas  Handbook.) 


Burning  from 

"3 

i 

member. 

I 

1 

| 

>, 

3 

c 

i 

1 

i 

i 

1 

Total. 

^ 

rj 

o. 

W 

£ 

OJ 

3 

S 

^5 

& 

fc 

° 

H^ 

& 

Dusk  to  — 

"  9  o'clock 

13 

71 

82 

124 

152 

173 

158 

117 

93 

58 

29 

8 

1078 

"10  o'clock 

44 

102 

112 

155 

182 

204 

189 

145 

124 

88 

60 

38 

1443 

"11  o'clock 

75 

133 

142 

186 

212 

235 

220 

173 

155 

118 

91 

68 

1808 

"12  o'clock 

106 

164 

172 

217 

242 

266 

251 

201 

186 

148 

122 

98 

2173 

All  night 

217 

307 

345 

421 

473 

527 

512 

411 

382 

295 

242 

195 

4327 

II.  — YEARLY  TABLE  OF  GAS-BURNING  HOURS. 

(From  American  Meter  Company's  Pocket  book.) 
Number  of  Hours  from  Sunset  to  10  P.M.,  with  Average  for  Each  Month. 


Average  Daily  Num- 
ber of  Hours. 

Comparative  Length 
of  Evenings. 

June  

Hrs.      Min. 
76       55 

Hrs.     Min. 
2       34 

100 

July  
May          .    . 

83       52 
88       38 

2       42 
2       51 

109 
115 

August 
April     .    . 
September 
March   .    . 
February 
October    . 
November 
January   . 
December 

99       16 
102       47 
115       24 
127       06 
132       59 
140       14 
153       35 
163       16 
168       25 

3       12 
3       25 
3       51 
4       06 
4       25 
4       31 
5      07 
5       16 
5       24 

132 
134 
150 
165 
172 
182 
199 
212 
218 

212  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Precautions  to  Render  Gas  Lighting  Safe  from  the  Danger  of  Fire. 

17.'  The  majority  of  dwelling-house  fires  are  due  to  defective 
or  improperly  managed  lighting  and  heating  apparatus.  Both 
fires  and  gas  explosions  may  result  in  consequence  of  leaky  gas 
pipes.  Hence  make  sure  that  all  gas  piping  is  absolutely  tight, 
and  do  not  permit  even  the  smallest  leaks  to  remain  unattended. 

Do  not  permit  the  search  for  a  leak  with  an  open  light,  a  taper, 
candle,  or  even  a  match.  The  escaping  gas  may  become  ignited 
without  your  noticing  it.  This  in  turn  may  set  woodwork  on 
fire.  Some  of  the  fires,  the  origin  of  which  remains  a  mystery, 
may  be  attributed  to  this  cause.  Electric  candles  are  much 
the  safest  devices  to  use  in  locating  gas  leaks. 

18.  Consider  carefully  the  location  of  the  gas  fixtures.     Swing- 
ing gas  brackets  are  particularly  dangerous,  and  often  set  wood- 
work of  doors  or  windows,  or  curtains,  portieres,  shades,  or  wall 
shelves  on  fire.     The  remedy  consists  in  protecting  the  open 
flame  with  a  wire  cage  of  large  diameter,  or  in  using  stiff  brackets 
in  such  places.     Unguarded,  open  gas  flames  in  a  building  are 
always  dangerous  and  should  be  carefully  watched  at  all  times, 
and  kept  away  from  inflammable  material.     Gas  flames  should 
not  be  nearer  to  a  ceiling  than  three  feet,  otherwise  use  some 
form  of  protection,  either  a  metal  or  glass  shield,  a  bell  hung 
over  the  flame,  a  deflector  or  a  ventilating  hood. 

19.  In  case  of  regenerative  or  other  ventilating  gas  burners, 
the  exhaust  flues  must  be  of  metal,  and  should  not  be  in  direct 
contact  with  woodwork. 

20.  Glass  shades  or  globes  should  be  used  to  protect  open 
flames  from  drafts.     Wire  cages  are  particularly  necessary  in  the 
servants'  department  of  a  house;  in  the  cellar,  basement,  and 
attic;  in  the  laundry,  the  ironing  room,  the  linen  and  storage 
closets. 

21.  Use  only  metallic  reflectors;  paper  or  pasteboard  reflectors 
or  shades  are  dangerous  to  use. 

22.  The  very  common  practice  of  using  rubber  hose  of  any  kind 
for  the  connections  between  a  gas  outlet  and  a  gas  stove,  radiator, 
cooking  plate,  or  even  for  a  drop  fixture  is  very  dangerous.     The 
cheaper  grades  of  hose  soon  deteriorate  in  use,  become  leaky  and 
are  easily  inflammable.     Metallic  hose  is  infinitely  better  though 
more  expensive. 

23.  A  stiff  iron  pipe  connection  between  the  gas  supply  and 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  213 

the  gas  fixture  is  much  more  preferable  and  safe.     It  should 
always  have  a  stopcock  or  valve  to  control  the  supply  of  gas. 

24.  Fires  have  been  caused  by  the  setting  up  of  small  gas 
cookers  or  laundry  iron  heaters  on  a  wooden  bench  or  table. 
The  better  way  is  to  line  the  tables  so  used  with  bright  tin. 

25.  Great  care  must  always  be  observed  in  the  use  of  matches. 
They  not  infrequently  cause  a  fire  if  they  are  thrown  away 
carelessly  while  still  glowing.     Always  put  burnt  matches  into 
earthen  or  metal  receptacles.     Keep  fresh  matches  away  from 
mice  and  rats.     Do  not  leave  matches  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays. 
Wax  and  parlor  matches  are  more  dangerous  in  use  than  the 
so-called  Swedish  or  safety  matches. 

26.  In  all  large  buildings  the  lighting  up  should  be  in  charge 
of  a  special  responsible  man.     He  should  be  instructed  to  use 
care  in  the  means  for  lighting  the  gas  flames.     He  should  not  be 
permitted  to  use  alcohol  torches  as  they  are  dangerous  for  indoor 
use;  electric  torches  or  lighters  are  much  better. 

27.  Broken  or  cracked  lava  burner  tips  in  combination  with 
a  sudden  increase  in  the  gas  pressure  may  cause  a  gas  flame  to 
flare  up  unduly  and  sometimes  ignite  nearby  woodwork.    Sudden 
changes  in  gas  pressure  are  very  undesirable  in  this  respect. 

See  that  the  gas  meter  is  located  in  a  ventilated  place,  which, 
if  practicable,  should  be  open  to  the  outer  air. 

Asphyxiation  by  Illuminating  Gas. 

28.  It  is  a  dangerous  practice  to  accustom  oneself  to  sleep 
in  an  unventilated  chamber  with  the  gas  left  burning  low.    A 
reduction  in  the  gas  pressure,  which  may  happen  at  any  time  of 
the  night,  may  cause  the  light  to  go  out.     If,  later  on,  the  gas 
pressure  again  becomes  stronger,'  the  gas  will  escape  from  the 
open  burner,  gradually  fill  the  room  and  endanger  the  life  of  the 
occupant. 

29.  Carbon  oxide,  which  is  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless,  and 
very  poisonous,  is  the  constituent  of  gas  which  causes  asphyxia- 
tion.    It  begins  by  causing  a  ringing  in  the  ears,  headache, 
dizziness,  heart  palpitation,  drowsiness,  confusion  of  the  mind, 
lowering  of  the  pulse,  loss  of  feeling  in  the  extremities,  and 
finally  loss  of  consciousness.    As  a  rule,  the  person  so  exposed 
is  unconscious  of  any  danger. 

30.  Haemoglobin  is  the  scientific  name  of   the  red  coloring 
matter  in  the  blood ;  this  normally  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air 


214  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

which  enters  the  lungs  while  breathing.  The  poisonous  carbonic 
oxide  has  a  greater  affinity  for  the  haemoglobin  than  the  oxygen. 
Asphyxiation  results  because  the  carbon  oxide  renders  the 
haemoglobin  incapable  of  taking  up  oxygen  in  the  lungs. 

31.  Persons  who  have  been  exposed  to  carbonic  oxide  should 
be  removed  to  the  open  air;  their  clothing  should  be  opened, 
and  breathing  should  be  restored  by  artificial  respiration  move- 
ments.    Rubbing  the  person  with  warm  cloths,  and  applying 
electricity  are  also  useful. 

32.  Make  it  a  rule  never  to  neglect  even  the  slightest  gas  leak. 
While  the  smell  of  gas  sometimes  gives  a  warning,  it  does  not  do  so 
where  gas  has  been  filtered  through  the  soil,  and  thereby  has 
lost  its  odor.     All  such  gas  leaks  constitute  grave  dangers  to 
health,  as  well  as  fire  hazards.    This  danger  became  more  serious 
at  the  time  when  gas  companies  began  the  manufacture  of  the 
cheaper  water  gas,  having  about  30  per  cent  of  CO,  and  abandoned 
the  making  of  coal  gas,  which  had  only  from  6  to  7  per  cent  CO. 

33.  Accidents  with  gas  arise  in  general  in  one  of  the  following 
ways: 

(1)  By  suffocation,  as  in  the  case  of  workmen  working  in 
trenches  of  broken  or  leaky  gas  mains. 

(2)  By  the  formation  of  an  explosive  mixture  of  gas  and  air. 

(3)  By  asphyxiation  during  sleep,  when  gas  escapes  from 
a  burner  or  from  defective  fixtures;  asphyxiation  is  often  due 
to  ignorance  in  gas  matters;  in  some  cases  it  is  due  to  accident, 
in  others  to  intention. 

(4)  By  slow  and  obscure  poisoning  caused  by  the  cumulative 
effect  of  a  number  of  small  leaks  in  the  house  pipes. 

(5)  By  gas  escapes  from  broken  street  mains  into  the  soil, 
thence  into  cellars  of  houses,  and  up  through  the  house.     These 
cases  are  particularly  frequent  and  dangerous  in  winter  time. 
Such  accidents  can  even  occur  in  such  houses  which  have  no  gas 
supply  whatever.    The  soil  is  apt  to  absorb  the  odor  of  the  gas 
and  becomes  impregnated  by  it,  whereas  the  escaping  gas  itself 
loses  its  peculiar  odor. 

Gas  Consumers'  Complaints. 

34.  Consumers'  complaints  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

(1)  The  gas  pressure  is  insufficient. 

(2)  The  gas  pressure  is  too  high. 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  215 

(3)  The  quality  of  the  light  is  bad;  there  is  less  light  than 
formerly. 

(4)  The  gas  flames  burn  irregularly  or  jump. 

(5)  The  gas  bill  is  much  higher,  although  no  more  gas  than 
formerly  is  burnt. 

35.  Gas  should,  of  course,  always  be  supplied  by  the  company 
to  the  consumers  under  a  sufficient  pressure  to  give  a  maximum 
of  illumination,  or,  where  gas  is  used  as  fuel,  to  give  a  maximum 
calorific  effect. 

Consumers  should  remember  that  a  moderate  pressure  of  gas 
and  a  burner  of  large  size  give  the  best  results.  They  should 
also  take  into  consideration  that  different  kinds  of  gas  burners 
require  different  pressures;  thus  an  Argand  burner  requires  less 
pressure  than  a  flat-flame  burner;  this  in  turn  requires  less 
pressure  than  an  incandescent  burner;  the  greatest  pressure  is 
required  at  cooking  burners  and  heating  stoves. 

36.  Insufficient  gas  pressure  is  generally  due  to  local  causes, 
such  as  too  small  piping ;  piping  partly  stopped  up  with  rust, 
tarry  matter  or  naphthaline ;  gas  meter  of  insufficient  size ;  service 
pipe  obstructed  and  requiring  cleaning  out. 

37.  The  increasing  number  of  complaints  of  loss  of  light  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  builders  furnish  buildings  with 
defective,  inferior,  and  inefficient  gas-fittings.     In  many  build- 
ings, even  in  modern  and  new  ones,  and  not  merely  in  houses 
erected  by  the  speculative  builder,  but  also  in  those  of  a  higher 
grade  and  selling  at  high  prices,  the  gas  piping  is  improperly 
done,  and  the  pipes  throughout  are  too  small,  causing  a  loss  of 
pressure  in  the  system.    Thus  it  happens  that  the  gas  company, 
or  sometimes  the  manufacturers  of  gas  fixtures,  receive  blame 
for  poor  illumination,  when  the  trouble  is  really  due  to  the  bad 
piping  done  by  the  builder  or  his  gas-fitter  or  plumber. 

38.  In  a  few  cases  the  trouble  with  the  illumination  is  due  to 
the  gas  company's  fittings,  which  comprise,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
service  pipe  and  the  meter.    The  sendee  pipe  may  be  too  small, 
and  in  other  cases  the  meter  may  be  of  insufficient  capacity. 
The  gas  company  usually  will  remedy  both  defects  promptly 
if  notified,  and  it  is  not  often  that  gas  companies  deny  an  appli- 
cation for  a  larger  meter. 

39.  The  most  common  fault  is  the  insufficient  size  of  the  house 
pipes  for  gas.     One  frequent  cause  deserves  special  mention,  i.e., 
the  supplying  of  a  gas  log,  a  gas  fireplace  heater,  or  even  of  a 


216  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

gas  range  from  the  same  riser  which  feeds  the  lamps.  Gas 
fires  and  gas  cooking  stoves  are  often  installed  and  supplied 
from  services  originally  intended  for  only  a  few  flat-flame 
burners.  The  gas  fires  are  often  used  simultaneously  with  the 
lamps. 

In  other  houses,  gas  flames  giving  only  a  dismal  illumination 
jump  up  suddenly  to  a  satisfactory  brilliancy  when  some  of  the 
burners  are  turned  off.  This  conclusively  shows  that  the  house 
piping  is  insufficient  in  size,  and  the  remedy  is,  of  course,  to  put 
in  larger  pipes.  But  the  consumer  or  the  house  owner  may  be 
shy  to  apply  the  only  right  remedy,  because  it  involves  a  good 
deal  of  tearing  up  of  floors  and  ceilings  as  well  as  the  cutting  of 
plastering.  And  so,  rather  than  cure  the  evil,  the  consumer  goes 
on  grumbling  about  his  poor  light. 

40.  There  are  many  cases  where  the  same  gas,  used  in  a  num- 
ber of  adjoining  houses,  produces  in  one  house  a  good  illumi- 
nation, whereas  the  adjoining  house  may  suffer  from  poor  light. 
In  such  case  the  conclusion  is  unavoidable  that  the  quality  of  the 
gas  furnished  by  the  company  cannot  be  at  fault,  and  that  the 
whole  trouble  must  necessarily  be  in  the  system  of  gas  piping 
or  in  the  burners  of  the  badly-lighted-up  house. 

41.  Irregular  or  jumping  gas  flames  are  nearly  always  due 
to  local  causes,  such  as  the  accumulation  of  water  either  in  the 
gas  meter,  or  in  some  low  and  defectively-run  piping  in  the 
house. 

42.  Troubles  with  poor  light  are  not  always  due  to  insufficient 
size  of  house  pipes,  or  to  partly-stopped-up  pipes,  or  to  too  many 
fixtures  being  taken  off  from  one  riser,  or  to  an  obstructed  service. 
There  are  numerous  cases  where  a  street  gas-main  has  outgrown 
its  usefulness  in  consequence  of  a  sudden  increase  in  the  number 
of  gas  consumers  in  the  district  which  the  main  supplies.     In 
such  a  case,  the  remedy  should  be  applied  by  the  gas  company, 
and  consists  in  replacing  the  street  main  by  one  of  larger  capacity 
or  else  in  putting  in  an  additional  main. 

43.  The  above  explanations  will  suffice  to  indicate  that  it  is 
unwise  and  usually  wrong,  for  consumers  to  jump  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  quality  of  gas  supplied  by  the  gas  company  is 
inferior.     There  may  be  and  there  usually  are  other  reasons  for 
the  consumers'  complaints. 

"  A  gas  company  may  in  all  sincerity  send  out  gas  of  even 
better  quality  than  standard,  yet  be  accused  of  supplying 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  217 

1  bad  gas  '  '  (London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting).  To  assume,  as 
many  consumers  do,  that  the  gas  companies  persistently  violate 
the  requirement  of  a  standard  quality  of  gas  is  erroneous  and 
unwarranted;  for  all  manufactured  gas  is  frequently  tested  by 
official  municipal  inspectors.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  records  of 
testing  stations  show  that  the  gas  seldom  falls  below  the  stand- 
ard requirements. 

44.  To  explain  the  fact  that  gas  consumers  quite  often  obtain 
a  very  unsatisfactory  supply  of  gas,  which  fact  is  true  beyond 
doubt,  it  is  necessary  to  look  to  other  causes,  such  as  those 
mentioned  above,  to  explain  it. 

45.  Consumers  who  wish  to  have  a  good  illumination  should 
avoid  cheap  gas  fixtures  and  cheap  gas  burners;  they  should  use 
only  the  best  burners  and  efficient  globes  or  shades. 

They  should  also  remember  that  the  modern  higher  require- 
ments regarding  the  illumination  of  interiors  are  at  the  present 
time  fulfilled  in  the  best  manner  by  the  use  of  the  incandescent 
gas  lamps. 

A  Word  to  the  Gas  Consumer  about  the  Price  of  Gas. 

46.  A  mistake  too  frequently  committed  by  the  gas  consumer 
is  to  judge  the  cost  of  gas  by  the  price  charged  per  one  thousand 
cubic  feet,  without  considering  the    candlepower  of   the  gas. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  the  latter,  it  is  really  impossible  to  tell 
whether  a  gas  is  cheap  or  expensive.     Gas  at  $1.00  per  1000 
cubic  feet,  and  giving  16  candlepower  is  actually  dearer  than 
gas  of  22  candlepower  at  $1.25.     Burnt  in  a  5-cubic-foot-per 
hour,  flat-flame  burner,  the  former  gas  costs  3.12  cents  per  100- 
candlepower-hour,  whereas  the  latter  costs  2.84  cents. 

47.  High  candlepower  gas  is  only  needed  for  flat -flame  and 
Argand  burners;  it  is  no  longer  required  where  incandescent 
mantle  burners  are  used.     In  fact,  a  gas  of  low  candlepower, 
so  burned,  gives  better  results  than  a  high  candlepower  gas. 

48.  Speaking  of  the  price  of  gas,  the  London  Journal  of  Gas 
Lighting  says:  "The  public  generally  resents  more  strongly  an 
increase  in  the  price  of  gas  than  a  proportionate  or  even  a 
greater  rise  in  the  price  of  other  commodities.    So  many  people 
speak  as  though  they  were  the  victims  rather  than  the  customers 
of  their  gas  company,  as  though,  in  fact,  they  got  nothing  for 
their  money,  that  it  seems  clear  that  this  idea,  carefully  fostered 


218  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

by  the  so-called  comic  paper,  with  its  antique  gibes  at  the  accu- 
racy of  the  gas  meter,  lies  at  the  root  of  much  of  the  hostility 
sometimes  displayed  towards  gas  undertakings." 

49.  The  question,  so  frequently  asked  by  gas  consumers, 
appears  justified:  —  "Why  are  the  gas  bills  higher  at  present 
than  in  former  years,  for  the  same  number  of  fixtures  in  the 
house,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  unit  price  of  gas  has 
been  reduced?" 

It  is  difficult  to  frame  an  intelligent  answer  to  this  question. 
Gas  companies,  without  exception,  seem  to  have  evaded  the 
question.  The  following  would  seem  to  me  to  be  a  fair  answer. 
If  a  consumer's  gas  bill  is  larger  than  formerly  the  gas  meter 
must  have  passed  more  gas  than  formerly.  Assuming  that  there 
are  no  leaks,  the  following  are  some  reasons  which  may  explain 
the  matter.  The  candlepower  of  gas  has  been  reduced  recently. 
Unless  the  consumer  has  substituted  incandescent  mantle 
burners  for  his  flat-flame  burners  he  must  necessarily  use  more 
burners  on  the  same  fixtures  to  get  the  former  degree  of  illumi- 
nation. This  means  increased  gas  consumption.  Another 
explanation  is  that  the  consumer,  tired  of  his  poor  light,  may 
have  been  misled  to  buy  new  types  of  flat-flame  burners,  which 
often,  though  marked  to  burn  only  3  or  4  cubic  feet  per  hour,  in 
reality  pass  per  hour  from  5  to  10  cubic  feet  of  gas,  particularly 
where  the  pressure  is  excessive,  and  unchecked  by  pressure 
regulation.  A  third  reason  is  that  in  districts  where  the  gas 
mains  have  become  insufficient  in  capacity,  the  gas  company 
carries  more  pressure  of  gas  in  the  evening  hours.  Unless  the 
consumer  checks  this  by  pressure-regulating  devices,  he  will 
burn  more  gas,  although  perhaps  not  using  a  larger  number  of 
burners. 

Others  have  endeavored  to  explain  the  increased  gas  bills  by 
calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas 
supplied  at  the  present  time  has  been  reduced.  The  reduced 
specific  gravity,  combined  with  increased  pressure,  causes  more 
gas  to  flow  through  the  gas  meter  in  a  given  time.  This  expla- 
nation appears  reasonable  enough,  but  I  am  not  prepared  to 
confirm  it. 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  219 

Various  Household  and  Commercial  Uses  of  Gas. 

50.  Consumers  should  bear  in  mind  that  at  the  present  greatly 
reduced  prices  for  gas  there  are  numerous  uses  of  gas  in  the 
household  other  than  for  light,  combining  convenience  as  well 
as  economy. 

(a)  Gas  may  be  used  in  the  kitchen  for  the  various  cooking 
processes.  There  is  a  large  variety  of  excellent  gas  cooking 
stoves  and  ranges  in  the  market  from  which  one  can  select 
apparatus  suitable  to  one's  needs.  Remember  that  the  gas 
companies  wjllingly  assist  the  consumer  in  the  selection  of  appli- 
ances adapted  to  their  individual  requirements. 

(6)  Gas  may  be  conveniently  used  in  gas  stoves,  gas  logs,  and 
gas  fireplace  heaters  for  the  occasional  warming  up  of  a  room. 

(c)  In  the  laundry  the  use  of  gas  sad  irons  will  be  found  ex- 
tremely convenient,  and  with  proper  care  also  quite  economical. 

(d)  When  drying  of  clothes  has  to  be  done  indoors,  the  install- 
ment of  a  clothes  dryer  heated  by  gas  will  be  found  advantageous. 
These  clothes  dryers  are  made  in  all  sizes,  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  large  as  well  as  small  families. 

(e)  Gaseous  fuel  is  of  the  greatest  convenience  in  heating 
water  for  the  kitchen,  for  the  bathroom,  for  shaving,  etc.,  in 
one  of  the  modern  gas  water-heaters,  which  are  made  in  a  variety 
of  styles  and  capacities. 

(/)  Finally,  there  are  numerous  commercial  uses  of  gas,  other 
than  for  lighting,  which  it  is  well  to  consider.  Owners  of  small 
workshops  will  find  it  of  advantage  to  look  into  the  merits  of 
the  small  gas  engine  for  power  use. 


"DON'TS"  FOR  GAS  CONSUMERS. 

Don't  think  if  your  gas  gives  a  poor  light  that  the  gas  company  is 
letting  down,  in  the  quality  of  gas.  Your  pipes  or  burners  may  be  at 
fault.  The  gas  furnished  you  is  the  same  as  that  furnished  to  your 
neighbor,  who  has  good  light. 

Don't  put  in  too  small  pipes  when  building  your  house.  You  cannot 
get  a  big  stream,  even  of  gas,  through  a  small  hole. 

Don't  put  in  too  small  burners.  It  will  be  poor  economy,  for  more 
jets  will  have  to  be  lighted  to  get  enough  light. 

Don't  expect  your  gas  bill  in  December  to  be  as  small  as  in  July;  it  is 
not  possible,  if  you  want  to  have  light  in  dark  hours. 


220  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Don't  expect  children  and  servants  to  be  as  economical  of  gas  as  you 
are;  it  isn't  their  nature. 

Don't  leave  your  gas  burning  full  when  it  ought  to  be  turned  out;  you 
will  be  irritated  by  the  sight  of  the  next  gas  bill. 

Don't  forget  to  keep  your  burners  cleaned  out. 

Don't  use  globes  with  too  small  opening  at  the  bottom;  the  light  will 
be  cut  off  by  them. 

Don't  allow  the  gas  to  flutter  and  blow  as  it  burns;  it  is  simply  wasting, 
making  heat  but  no  light. 

Don't  leave  your  house  alone  and  shut  up  a  great  length  of  time  with- 
out notifying  the  company  to  remove  the  gas  meter  or  shut  off  the  gas. 
Some  one  else  may  get  in  and  burn  gas  for  you  to  pay  for. 

Don't  fail  to  go  to  the  gas  office  when  anything  is  wrong  with  your 
light,  instead  of  complaining  to  your  family  or  to  your  neighbor. 

(From  the  Columbus  Gas  Company's  Book.) 

Don't  look  for  a  gas  leak  with  a  match  or  other  open  light. 

Don't  fail  to  keep  your  burners  clean.  Gas  companies  furnish  cleaners 
free  of  charge. 

Don't  put  on  too  small  burners;  it  is  poor  economy. 

Don't  use  globes  of  too  ornate  pattern,  or  with  too  small  openings  at 
bottom ;  they  cut  off  light.  The  plainer  the  globes  the  better. 

Don't  forget  that  gas  as  a  fuel  for  cooking  is  cheaper  than  coal. 
Don't  allow  your  gas-range  burners  to  become  foul. 

Don't  fail  to  turn  off  your  gas-range  burners  when  not  in  actual  use,  or 
to  turn  them  down  to  just  the  efficiency  required  when  in  use.  It  is  very 
easy  to  waste  gas. 

Don't  fill  your  oven  with  gas  and  apply  a  match  or  light.  Any  self- 
respecting  gas  will  explode  under  these  conditions. 

Don't  forget  to  read  your  meter  occasionally. 

Don't  expect  your  bill  for  lighting  to  be  as  small  in  winter  as  in  summer. 

Don't  blame  the  gas  company  if  you  receive  a  bill  which  seems  unduly 
large.  Remember  that  you  control  the  gas  consumption,  the  meter 
records  it,  and  the  company  only  reads  the  meter  which  you  can  do  also. 

Don't  be  too  sure  that  you  did  not  use  the  gas  as  billed.  Consumers 
are  sometimes  mistaken  in  this  respect,  and  if  you  think  your  gas  meter 
registers  fast,  the  company  provides  a  remedy. 

Don't  fail  to  notify  the  gas  company  of  any  defects  in  the  gas  service. 
They  will  be  promptly  attended  to. 

(From  Cicero  Gas  Company's  Book.) 


Practical  Hints  for  Gas  Consumers  221 

Don't  call  an  unbiased  and  fair-minded  observer  or  counselor,  who 
attempts  to  explain  to  you  the  mysteries  of  the  gas  meter,  and  who 
endeavors  to  show  you  why  your  meter  is  not  at  fault  and  points  out  to 
you  the  real  cause  for  your  high  gas  bills,  a  "  champion  of  the  gas  meter." 

(THE  AUTHOR.) 

A  FEW   POINTERS  ON   GAS. 

Have  your  gas  meter  placed  in  a  convenient  location,  and  where 
it  will  be  least  affected  by  outside  changes  of  temperature,  and  keep  your 
service  pipe  protected  from  frost. 

Use  a  little  patient  effort  to  learn  the  manner  of  measuring  gas. 
Then  you  can  read  your  meter  every  week,  or  oftener  if  desired,  and  have 
in  your  own  hands  a  perfect  check  against  fraud,  or  against  waste  on  the 
part  of  your  employees  or  servants. 

Carelessness  or  waste  in  using  more  burners  a  longer  time  or  under 
a  heavier  pressure  than  necessary,  is  the  main  cause  of  high  bills. 

The  time  has  gone  by  when  gas  companies  should  desire  the 
lighting  bills  of  their  consumers  to  be  as  large  as  possible.  Their  true 
interest  lies  in  furnishing  perfectly  satisfactory  light  for  the  least  possible 
money. 

Remember  that  the  gas  meter  registers  all  that  gas  which  is  burnt 
unnecessarily  or  wastefully,  or  which  escapes  through  leaks  in  the  house 
pipes  or  at  the  fixtures. 

(Compiled  from  various  sources.) 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  THE  GAS  SUPPLY, 

(A.)  The  Quality  and  Price  of  Gas.  From  time  to  time  the 
public  and  the  newspaper  press  indulge  in  complaints  about 
the  "  exorbitant  "  gas  bills  and  the  poor  quality  of  the  gas 
manufactured  by  gas  companies. 

To  an  impartial  observer  both  complaints  appear  generally 
to  be  without  foundation  in  fact.  While  there  is  scarcely 
another  private  manufacturing  industry  in  which  the  general 
public  is  so  much  interested  as  that  of  the  supply  and  dis- 
tribution of  gas,  because  it  is  a  commodity  in  very  general  use, 
I  venture  to  assert  that  nowhere  else  are  so  much  ignorance  and 
misconception  of  facts  prevailing.  This  may  be  partly  explained 
by  the  well-known  truth  that  it  is  human  nature  to  be  suspicious 
and  sceptical  of  anything  which  one  does  not  understand .  Of 
the  making  and  selling  of  gas  the  public  knows  very  little  indeed, 
few  people  care  to  take  the  trouble  to  inquire  at  all  into  the 
subject,  and  many  erroneous  ideas  and  prejudices  exist. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  gas  companies  have  in  more 
recent  years  exerted  much  effort  in  trying  to  educate  and  en- 
lighten the  gas  consumers  about  the  mysteries  of  gas  making 
and  gas  burning,  by  freely  given  advice,  by  remedying  unfavor- 
able conditions  in  cases  where  these,  upon  investigation,  were 
found  really  to  exist,  by  popular  lectures  on  the  use  of  gas,  by 
exhibitions  of  gas  appliances,  for  lighting,  cooking,  and  heat- 
ing, etc.,  much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  these  directions  to 
clear  up  popular  fallacies  and  prejudices. 

Concerning  the  price  at  which  gas  is  sold  to  consumers,  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  ever  occurs  to  the  grumbling  consumers  to  con- 
sider that  the  cost  of  manufacturing  gas  must  necessarily  depend 
upon  three  principal  factors;  namely,  upon  the  cost  of  the  raw 
materials  (coal  and  oil),  upon  the  freight  rates  from  the  coal 
regions  to  the  gas  works,  including  the  cost  of  loading  and 
unloading  and  trucking,  and  upon  the  cost  of  the  labor  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  gas.  It  is  unavoidable, 

222 


Some  Facts  About  the  Gas  Supply  223 

therefore,  that  the  cost  of  production  of  gas  must  change,  and 
vary  with  the  price  paid  for  the  two  chief  items  entering  into  its 
manufacture,  viz.,  coal  and  labor.  The  cost  of  coal  at  the 
mines  is  always  subject  to  fluctuations,  caused  by  strikes,  and 
its  transportation  is  greatly  affected  by  the  prevailing  freight 
rates,  which  are  generally  high,  owing  to  railroad  combinations, 
and  only  fall  when  a  contest  between  competing  railroad  lines 
takes  place. 

The  other  item,  the  cost  of  labor,  depends  upon  the  rate  of 
wages  paid,  and  includes  not  only  the  wages  of  the  laborers  in 
gas  works  but  such  items  as  salaries,  expenses  of  the  distribution 
department,  cost  of  meter  reading,  expenses  for  testing  and 
repairing  meters,  for  altering  or  repairing  street  gas-mains  and 
street  surfaces;  for  lighting,  extinguishing,  cleaning,  or  repairing 
street  lamps,  etc. 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  gas  consumers  must  be  aware  of  the 
fact  that  the  cost  of  coal  has  in  recent  years  gone  up;  that  a  few 
years  ago,  for  instance,  the  price  of  coal,  owing  to  the  prolonged 
coal  strike,  was  extraordinarily  high,  in  fact,  almost  prohibitive; 
that  the  freight  rates  have  increased  owing  to  railroad  combines, 
and  that  the  wages  of  laborers  have  also  increased  instead  of 
diminishing. 

Notwithstanding  these  facts,  gas  companies  in  New  York, 
for  instance,  are  held,  by  an  Act  of  Legislature,  to  a  fixed  price, 
namely  of  $0.80  per  1000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  irrespective  of  the 
future  cost  of  coal,  of  oil,  or  of  the  rates  of  wages. 

It  is  well  to  remind  consumers  that  when  gas  was  first  intro- 
duced (about  80  years  ago)  the  price  charged  was  ten  dollars 
per  1000  cubic  feet.  This  price  was  adhered  to  for  many  years, 
but  it  subsequently  dropped  to  $7,  $5,  and  $4  successively. 
Only  twenty  years  ago  the  price  was  $2.50,  which  was  gradually 
cut  down  to  the  80-cent  gas  of  to-day.  From  the  fact  that  for 
a  short  period  of  time,  during  the  war  between  the  rival  gas 
companies  in  New  York,  who  have  since  consolidated,  the 
gas  was  sold  at  65  cents  per  1000  cubic  feet,  a  popular  fallacy 
arose  that  the  recent  charge  of  $1.00  was  an  exorbitant  one.  This 
being  the  case,  it  seems  proper  to  remind  the  public  of  the 
former  charges  as  mentioned  above. 

When  a  consumer  discusses  the  price  of  gas,  he  is  very  apt  to 
make  comparisons  with  actual  prices  charged  in  other  cities. 
Such  general  comparisons  are,  however,  often  extremely  incor- 


224  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

rect,  and,  to  say  the  least,  unfair.  Cities  situated  in  the  coal 
or  oil  regions  must  necessarily  enjoy  the  advantage  of  cheaper 
gas  rates,  as  the  item  for  transportation  of  the  raw  material  is 
very  much  reduced  in  comparison  with  cities  located  remote 
from  these  regions. 

In  no  other  branch  of  commerce  or  industry  are  comparisons 
made  from  the  actual  price  per  unit  only,  without  taking  the 
quality  of  the  product  sold  into  consideration.  For  example,  a 
poor  quality  of  paper,  sold  at  one  dollar  a  ream,  may  in  reality 
be  a  great  deal  more  expensive  than  a  good  quality  of  paper 
sold  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  a  ream.  The  same  applies  to  the 
cost  of  gas  sold  to  consumers.  Without  a  consideration  of  either 
the  candle  or  illuminating  power  and  the  heating  power,  it  is 
impossible,  in  comparing  two  kinds  of  gas,  to  say  which  of  the 
two  is  the  cheaper  and  which  the  more  expensive.  Is  it  not  a 
fact  that  gas  sold  in  London  at  3  shillings,  or  about  75  cents,  is 
dearer  than  gas  sold  at  $1.00  in  New  York,  when  it  is  borne  in 
mind  that  London  gas  is  of  16  candlepower,  whereas  New  York 
gas  is  from  22  to  26  candlepower? 

Take  again  the  City  of  London  as  an  example :  Would  it  not 
surprise  gas  consumers  to  learn  that  in  London  the  companies 
were  some  years  ago  obliged,  and  received  parliamentary  per- 
mission, to  raise  the  price  of  gas,  because  of  the  growing  scarcity 
of  coal  and  the  consequently  higher  price  charged  for  same,  and 
also  because  of  the  higher  value  of  other  materials  and  of  labor. 
Yet,  according  to  the  London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting,  this  is 
a  fact,  not  only  in  London,  but  in  many  other  English  towns 
as  well. 

In  the  State  of  New  York,  too,  several  instances  have  occurred, 
where,  owing  to  the  increased  price  for  coal  and  higher  freight 
rates,  the  price  of  gas  was  raised.  The  Mohawk  Gas  Company 
of  Schenectady,  for  instance,  announced  recently  an  increase  of 
10  cents  (from  $1.20  to  $1.30  net)  per  1000  cubic  feet,  and  as  this 
company  has,  from  time  to  time,  voluntarily  reduced  its  price, 
whenever  the  state  of  the  coal  market  permitted,  fair-minded 
consumers  probably  did  not  seriously  object  to  the  trifling 
advance. 

The  cost  of  gas  in  London  at  the  present  time  is  nearly  as 
high  as  in  New  York  City,  yet  the  item  of  laborers'  wages  alone 
is  vastly  higher  here  than  there.  Moreover,  gas  companies  here 
are  expected  to  do  a  great  deal  more  for  the  public  than  in  Eng- 


Some  Facts  About  the  Gas  Supply  225 

land  or  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  For  instance,  American 
gas  companies  always  run  the  service  from  the  street  main  to 
the  building  free  of  charge,  and  often  are  asked  to  do  even  some 
piping  inside  of  the  building,  whereas  in  Europe  it  is  the  rule 
that  the  gas  consumer  must  pay  for  every  foot  of  service  pipe 
laid  for  him.  Again,  here  gas  companies  are  expected  to 
furnish  the  gas  meter  free,  and  to  set  and  connect  the  same, 
whereas  in  London  and  other  European  cities  the  house  owners 
must  pay  for  this  work  and  even  for  the  meters. 

Compare  again  the  gas  service  with  the  water  service  of  cities. 
The  house  owner  must  defray  all  expenses  connected  with  the 
introducing  of  water,  for  service,  taps,  shutoffs,  and  for  the 
water  meter  where  this  is  used.  Not  so  for  the  gas  service, 
which  he  expects  to  get,  and  does  get,  entirely  free  of  charge, 
including  the  gas  meter. 

Again  the  public  should  bear  in  mind  how,  in  innumerable 
instances,  gas  companies  are  called  upon,  where  there  is  trouble 
in  the  gas  supply,  and  complaint  made  at  the  gas  company's 
office,  to  look  into  the  question  of  the  house  piping,  fittings,  and 
even  the  gas  appliances,  all  of  which  is  never  expected  from 
them  in  London  or  in  Continental  cities. 

(B.)  The  Candlepower  of  Gas.  When  gas  burns  poorly,  it  is 
usual  for  people  to  complain  at  once  about  the  inferior  quality, 
or  the  low  and  insufficient  candlepower  of  the  gas.  Not  many 
persons  will  stop  to  consider  first,  whether  other  causes  might 
not  exist  to  explain  the  poor  illumination. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  general  public  should  know  that  the 
candlepower  of  the  gas  furnished  to  consumers  is  tested  by 
officially  appointed  gas  examiners  regularly,  not  at  the  gas 
works,  but  at  gas-testing  stations  located  in  different  parts  of 
the  city.  The  published  records  of  these  gas  tests  offer  sufficient 
proof  that  it  is  a  rare  occurrence  to  find  the  quality  of  the  gas 
falling  below  the  established  standard. 

In  Greater  New  York  the  charter  requires  that  gas  should  be 
of  at  least  20  candlepower.  In  the  month  of  September  of  the 
year  1900,  the  records  of  the  gas-testing  stations  showed  the 
illuminating  power  to  have  been  from  22  to  26  candlepower, 
in  other  words  always  from  2  to  6  candlepower  higher  than 
required  by  statute,  yet  articles  appeared  in  the  daily  press 
giving  a  list  of  the  results  of  the  monthly  gas  tests,  with  words 
like  the  following  "  gas  somewhat  improved  in  quality,"  thus 


226  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

indirectly  implying  that  the  gas  had  before  that  time  been  below 
standard,  whereas  in  reality  it  had  always  been  kept  more  or 
less  above  the  legal  requirement. 

It  is  a  fact,  not  well  known  to  consumers  of  gas,  that  even  a 
gas  of  high  candlepower  will  not  give  a  good  illumination  when 
it  is  burned  under  unfavorable  conditions,  such  as  poor,  worn  out, 
or  corroded  burners,  insufficient  size  of  the  piping  of  the  houses, 
or  badly  arranged  gas  pipes,  or  clogged  services,  or  in  cases 
where  too  many  fixtures  are  being  supplied  from  a  small  riser 
or  service.  Take  the  case,  for  instance,  where  gas  burns  well 
on  the  lower  floors  of  a  house,  but  gives  dim  flames  on  the  upper 
floors :  common  sense  should  tell  the  occupants  that  it  cannot  be 
the  candlepower  of  gas  which  is  at  fault,  for  the  same  gas  is 
supplied  to  all  parts  of  the  house.  There  must,  in  such  cases, 
be  local  causes  affecting  the  lighting;  for  instance,  the  gas  riser 
from  the  lower  to  the  upper  part  of  the  house  may  be  stopped 
up  with  rust.  These  matters  are  spoken  of  more  in  detail  in 
other  chapters  of  this  book. 

I  must,  however,  dwell  further  on  the  requirement  of  the 
candlepower  of  gas.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
expectations  of  consumers  with  regard  to  illumination  have  in 
recent  years  been  increased,  partly,  no  doubt,  by  the  advent 
of  electric  lighting. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  progress  made 
in  the  last  decade  in  the  art  of  illumination  by  gas  has  been  some- 
what in  the  nature  of  a  complete  revolution.  This  came  about 
largely  through  the  introduction  of  the  incandescent  gas  lamp. 
An  excellent  illumination  is  now  obtainable  with  gas  of  low 
candlepower  by  burning  it  with  the  incandescent  or  Welsbach 
mantles.  But  more  than  this,  scientific  men  have  discovered 
that  a  gas  of  low  candlepower,  burned  with  the  incandescent 
mantle,  gives  actually  far  better  results  than  does  a  high  candle- 
power  gas. 

No  less  an  authority  than  Professor  Dr.  H.  Bunte,  of  Carlsruhe, 
speaking  of  the  conditions  prevailing  at  this  date  in  Germany, 
states  that  "  incandescent  gas  lighting,  as  opposed  to  the  older 
lighting  by  flat-flame  andArgand  burners,  has  assumed  a  pre- 
dominant position.  .  .  .  The  fundamental  factors,  by  which 
gas  is  valued,  and  the  properties  and  manufacture  of  gas,  have 
been  entirely  altered." 

Formerly  illuminating  power  was  regarded  as  the  principal 


Some  Facts  About  the  Gas  Supply  227 

criterion  of  the  value  of  gas,  but  this  has  now  become  of  second- 
ary importance  as  compared  with  heating  power.  A  large  part 
of  the  gas  used  for  lighting,  and  nearly  all  gas  used  for  heat- 
ing and  cooking  is  mixed  with  air  in  the  Bunsen  burners  (giving 
the  well-known  bluish  or  greenish  flame);  this  destroys  the 
illuminating  constituents  of  flames  and  only  the  calorific  (or  the 
heating)  value  of  the  gas  is  of  any  importance.  Hence  there 
should  be  substituted  for  the  present  illuminating  candlepower 
standard  a  standard  calorific  value  of  the  gas. 

The  Boston  Herald,  under  the  heading  of  "  A  Standard  of  the 
Past,"  discusses  this  phase  of  the  gas  question  in  its  issue  of 
May  1,  1907,  in  the  following  words: 

"  In  discussing  the  various  plans  that  have  been  put  forward  for 
governing  the  supply  of  gas  furnished  the  consumers  in  this  city,  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  in  one  respect  at  least  we  are  behind  the  gas  users 
of  Europe.  This  is  in  regard  to  *  'candlepower."  We  still  stick  to  a 
high  candlepower  for  our  gas,  measuring  it  by  the  old-style  fish-tail 
burner,  a  burner  that  in  some  European  cities  is  as  hard  to  find  as  would 
be  a  hen's  teeth.  For  burning  with  mantles,  for  heating  purposes  and 
engines,  high  candlepower  gas  is  not  only  wasteful,  but  for  some  reasons, 
at  least,  it  is  not  so  good  as  that  with  fewer  illuminative  units  when 
measured  by  the  old-fashioned  standard.  Throughout  the  United  King- 
dom the  tendency  has  been  very  marked  both  with  the  municipal-owned 
and  private  plants  to  lower  the  standard  of  candlepower  demanded, 
and  in  Germany  they  have  gone  so  far  that  candlepower  is  no  longer 
mentioned,  and  gas  is  furnished  capable  of  supplying  a  certain  number  of 
heat  units.  While  the  use  of  mantles  has  increased  wonderfully  in  this 
city  during  recent  years,  we  are  still  far  behind  our  friends  across  the  sea 
in  this  respect.  In  London,  gas  lighting  in  the  streets  is  being  steadily 
extended,  even  where  there  is  keen  competition  with  municipally-owned 
electric  plants.  Any  basis  of  settlement,  sliding  scale  or  otherwise,  for 
the  Boston  gas  question  should  be  with  some  provision  for  a  reduction 
in  the  future  of  the  number  of  lighting  units  supplied  by  a  given  amount 
of  gas.  By  that  change  we  would  bring  ourselves  in  line  with  progress 
in  the  business  as  it  has  been  developed  for  use  in  stoves  and  engines. 
The  fish-tail  burner  is  as  much  out  of  date  in  comparison  with  the  mantle 
burner  as  is  a  tallow  candle  in  comparison  with  a  kerosene  lamp." 

In  incandescent  gas  lighting  the  quantity  of  the  illumination 
is  dependent  primarily  upon  the  quality  and  nature  of  the  mantle. 
At  the  present  time  every  opportunity  is  offered  to  the  gas 
consumer,  who  wishes  a  brilliant  illumination,  to  get  it,  without 
an  increase  in  the  candlepower  of  gas  and  also  without  an 


228  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

increase  in  the  amount  of  gas  consumed,  by  simply  making  use 
of  the  incandescent  gas  lamp  in  one  of  its  many  improved  forms. 
Indeed,  there  is  as  a  rule  a  reduction  rather  than  an  increase  in 
the  gas  consumption,  and,  owing  to  their  efficiency,  the  gas 
mantle  burners  are  in  some  cases  successful  rivals  to  the  electric 
lamp. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  nearly  all  cheap  mantles  at  present 
sold  are  bad,  and  that  the  good  mantles  are  rather  expensive, 
but  is  not  this  equally  true  of  many  other  commodities  or  articles 
sold  to  the  public?  Doubtless  this  state  of  things  will  be 
remedied  in  the  near  future  by  the  manufacturers  of  incandes- 
cent gas  mantles  and  burners.  It  will,  furthermore,  be  of 
interest  to  gas  consumers,  who  are  inclined  to  complain  about 
the  insufficient  candlepower  of  the  gas,  to  learn  that  in  London 
one  of  the  three  large  companies  obtained  about  eight  years 
ago  a  concession  from  Parliament,  reducing  the  illuminating 
power  by  two  candlepower,  so  that  now  Londoners  burn  14- 
candlepower  gas  (see  the  London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting  of 
October  9,  1900).  The  granting  of  this  reduction  in  illuminat- 
ing power  was  largely  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  increasing  use  of 
incandescent  gas  burners,  and  of  gas  heating  and  gas  cooking 
appliances.  Close  observations  show  that  similar  conditions 
prevail  in  the  United  States,  and  the  time  is  probably  not  far 
distant  when  photometer  or  candlepower  tests  will  be  super- 
seded by  calorific  tests  or  tests  of  the  heating  value  of  the 
manufactured  gas. 


CHAPTER  XXIII.      y 

ACCIDENTS   WITH   GAS. 

THE  records  of  the  coroners'  offices  in  every  large  city  show 
each  year  a  list  of  fatalities  due  to  the  use  of  illuminating  or 
fuel  gas  in  buildings.  The  thirteenth  annual  re-port  of  the 
Board  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Commissioners  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Massachusetts,  published  in  January,  1898,  enumerates 
105  instances  of  gas  escapes  which  happened  during  the  year 
1897,  and  which  caused  the  death  of  60  persons  and  injury  to 
74  others.  A  few  of  these  cases  were  due  to  intended  suicide, 
but  the  larger  number  were  clearly  accidents.  In  the  city  of 
New  York,  388  deaths  were  traced  by  the  coroner's  office  in 
1903  to  illuminating  gas.  Of  these  130  were  considered  to  be 
"suicide"  cases,  and  258  "accidental"  cases.  The  casualties 
occurring  in  other  states  are  undoubtedly  equally  large  in  pro- 
portion, and  perhaps  even  exceed  the  above  figures  in  the  case 
of  seaboard  cities  where  a  vast  number  of  immigrants  land  every 
year,  many  of  whom  are  not  familiar  with  the  management  of 


As  is  well  known,  jnany  gas  companies  now  manufacture 
water  gas  which  they  enrich  with  naphtha.  This  gas  contains 
a  much  larger  percentage  of  carbonic  oxide  than  coal  gas,  and 
since  carbonic  oxide  forms  the  principal  poisonous  constituent 
of  illuminating  gas,  a  greater  number  of  fatalities  result  in  those 
cities  where  water  gas  is  used.  The  percentage  of  carbonic 
oxide  in  gas  varies  from  6  per  cent  in  coal  gas  to  as  much  as 
25  or  even  30  per  cent  in  water  gas.  Carbonic  oxide  is  strictly 
odorless,  and  therefore  pure  water  gas  would  be  very  dangerous 
to  use.  Fortunately,  it  cannot,  per  se,  be  used  for  lighting  pur- 
poses, and  must  be  mixed,  or  "enriched,"  with  coal  gas  or 
naphtha  to  make  it  suitable  for  illumination.  This  admixture 
imparts  to  the  gas  the  peculiar  strong  and  pungent  odor,  by 
means  of  which  it  is  readily  detected,  when  it  escapes  un- 
burned  in  even  small  quantities.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  the 
numerous  accidents  point  to  the  necessity  of  diligent  care  in 


230  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

the  use  of  gas  fixtures  and  fittings ;  they  also  emphasize  the  need 
of  popular  instruction  in  the  management  of  gas,  and  finally 
they  tend  to  show  that  an  official  supervision  of  gas  piping  and 
gas-fitting  in  all  classes  of  buildings  would  be  as  desirable  as  the 
official  regulation  of  plumbing  and  drainage  now  enforced  in  a 
large  number  of  cities. 

Illuminating  gas  (both  coal  and  water  gas)  possesses  another 
quality  making  it  dangerous  under  certain  conditions,  i.e.,  when 
mixed  in  a  certain  proportion  with  atmospheric  air  (from  13 
to  20  per  cent)  it  becomes  a  highly  explosive  compound.  Igno- 
rance of  this  fact  is  a  prolific  source  of  accidents  and  explosions. 
When  gas  escapes,  it  is  imperative  that  one  should  not  search 
for  the  leak  with  an  open  flame.  Yet  even  the  employees  of  gas 
companies  frequently  come  to  grief  by  a  disregard  of  this  simple 
rule.  Witness  the  following  account,  taken  from  the  columns 
of  a  daily  paper: 

"  Because  of  the  repeated  complaints  of  the  odor  of  escaping  gas  being 
in  evidence  in  the  neighborhood  of  -  —  Street,  a  gang  of  men  was  sent 

down  there  by  the Gas  Company  to  locate  the  supposed  leak.     After 

a  hole  had  been  dug  near  the  curb  in  front  of  the  heuse,  the  foreman 
went  down,  with  a  lighted  lantern,  to  examine  the  pipes.  The  escaping 
gas  was  ignited  by  the  flame,  and  an  explosion  followed,  throwing  the 
man  out  of  the  trench.  The  occupant  of  the  ground  floor  was  knocked 
down  by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  and  all  the  windows  of  his  place 
shattered.  The  explosion  also  caused  a  fire." 

Similar  severe  accidents  happen  when  an  escape  of  gas  occurs 
in  the  cellar  of  a  building,  or  when  a  gas  meter  springs  a  leak. 
In  all  such  cases  the  safe  rule  to  follow  is  never  to  search  for  the 
leak  with  an  open  flame  or  lantern,  nor  to  strike  a  match  near  the 
gas  meter,  nor  even  to  handle  any  tool  or  instrument  which  may 
cause  a  flying  spark. 

Many  cases  of  gas  asphyxiation  arise  from  the  ignorance  of 
persons  who  have  never  used  gas.  Immigrants  and  travelers 
from  remote  country  towns  constitute  a  large  percentage  of 
these  cases.  Persons  who  have  never  lighted  a  gas  flame  before 
in  their  life,  are  apt,  upon  retiring  at  night,  to  blow  out  the 
flame  in  the  same  way  as  they  would  a  candle  or  oil  lamp,  and 
the  next  morning  they  are  found  asphyxiated  in  their  bed. 
Intoxicated  persons  sometimes  commit  the  same  fatal  mistake. 

The  Massachusetts  Board  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Com- 
missioners considered  several  expedients  to  guard  against  this 


Accidents  with  Gas  231 

accident.  They  suggested  that  a  legislative  act  might  be  passed 
requiring  in  the  sleeping  rooms  of  cheap  hotels  and  lodging 
houses  the  use  of  some  kind  of  gas  burner  from  which  gas  can- 
not escape  except  when  lighted.  At  the  gas  exhibition  held  in 
New  York  some  years  ago,  several  inventions  tending  to  accom- 
plish this  object  were  shown,  and  some  types  of  gas  burners 
are  now  manufactured  \vhich  automatically  shut  off  the  sup- 
ply of  gas  when  the  burner  is  blown  out,  either  by  design 
or  by  accident,  as,  for  instance,  from  a  draft  of  air  passing 
over  a  flame  which  has  been  turned  down  low.  The  danger  in 
relying  upon  such  safety  burners  arises  from  the  fact  that  these 
appliances  may  not  always  prove  to  be  reliable  and  durable, 
and  may  refuse  to  work  at  the  proper  moment.  It  is  not  denied 
that  it  is  within  the  range  of  mechanical  possibility  to  construct 
a  device  of  this  kind,  which  would  be  simple,  safe,  durable  and 
at  all  times  efficient.  Encouragement  should  therefore  be  offered 
to  inventors  of  this  line  of  appliances. 

Another  frequent  source  of  accidents  by  asphyxiation  is  found 
in  gas  keys,  which  are  worn  out  and  have  become  so  loose  that 
they  turn  too  easily.  It  frequently  happens  with  such  fittings 
that  upon  retiring  for  the  night,  persons  turn  out  the  gas,  and 
accidentally  or  carelessly  re-open  the  burner  enough  to  cause  a 
dangerous  escape  of  gas.  Many  cases  of  fatalities  recorded  in 
official  statistics  are  due  to  this  cause.  The  remedy  is  too 
obvious  to  require  any  further  description.  Other  accidents 
arise  from  fixtures  which  are  defective  by  reason  of  the  stop-pin 
being  either  absent  (so-called  " all-around  keys"  which  persons 
unconsciously  may  turn  too  far),  or  because  of  its  having  fallen 
out.  Such  old-fashioned  fixtures  are,  unfortunately,  often  to  be 
found  in  hotels  and  lodging  houses.  Many  years  ago,  the  author 
suggested  that  the  use  of  such  dangerous  fixtures  should  be  pro- 
hibited by  legislative  act.  The  law  should  also  provide  for  an 
efficient  inspection  of  the  gas  fixtures  in  hotels,  lodging  houses, 
and  similar  buildings.  The  above-named  commission  proposed 
as  a  further  safeguard  a  law  prohibiting  the  use  of  gas  in  sleeping 
rooms  containing  less  than  a  definite  number  of  cubic  feet. 

Fatal  accidents  occur  through  the  stupid  custom,  still  existing 
in  some  hotels,  of  turning  off  the  gas  at  night  from  the  bedrooms. 
Occupants  often  leave  their  gas  flame  turned  down  low,  on 
retiring,  and  by  reason  of  the  practice  mentioned,  the  flame 
becomes  extinguished  without  the  burner  cock  being  turned  off. 


232  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

When  the  gas  is  again  turned  on  early  in  the  morning,  it  escapes 
through  the  partly  open  burner  and  asphyxiates  the  occupants 
before  they  awaken.  This  bad  practice  is  not  confined  to  hotels 
and  lodging  houses,  but  it  also  occurs  in  boarding  schools,  in 
apartment  and  dwelling  houses.  Equally  bad  is  the  practice 
of  turning  off  the  gas  at  the  main  service  during  the  day,  as  it 
leads  to  similar  dangers,  by  reason  of  people  leaving  gas  cocks 
open  when  they  attempt  to  light  the  gas  early  in  the  evening, 
before  it  has  been  turned  on  at  the  meter.  Two  cases  in  point 
were  related  in  the  daily  papers  not  long  ago,  as  follows: 

Case  1.  "  Yesterday  the  body  of  E.  S.  was  found  in  his  apartments. 
He  had  seemingly  been  asphyxiated  with  gas,  which  was  issuing  from 
a  jet  not  turned  off.  S.  went  to  bed  sick  at  an  early  hour,  leaving  the 
burner  turned  down  low.  His  brother-in-law  always  turned  off  the  gas 
in  the  cellar  so  that  no  accidents  would  occur  during  the  night.  Early 
in  the  morning  he  used  to  turn  it  on  again  so  as  to  make  the  gas  avail- 
able in  the  gas  stove  which  his  wife  used  in  preparing  the  morning  meal. 
This  practice  resulted  in  the  death  of  his  boarder." 

Case  2.  "  T.  C.  was  found  in  his  rooms  overcome  by  gas,  and  died  later 
at  the  hospital  to  which  he  had  been  removed.  He  was  in  the  habit  of 
sleeping  with  his  gas  burning.  That  night  the  gas  in  che  lodging  house 
had  been  turned  off  for  only  a  few  minutes  to  make  certain  repairs.  No 
one  thought  of  the  habit  of  the  man  sleeping  with  his  gas  burning.  The 
turning  out  of  the  gas  had,  of  course,  extinguished  the  gas  flame  in  the 
man's  room,  and  when  the  gas  was  again  turned  on  full  force,  it  escaped 
into  his  room  while  he  lay  in  bed  sleeping  and  caused  his  death  by  inhala- 
tion." 

Gas  explosions  may  also  occur  when  attempts  are  made  to 
thaw  out  a  frozen  gas  meter  with  the  heat  of  a  flame. 

In  this  connection,  the  following  extract  from  the  report  of 
the  Inspector  of  Plumbing  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  of  August  26, 
1897,  is  interesting : 

"  Some  study  was  given,  during  the  winter  1894-95,  to  determine  the 
best  practical  method  of  obviating  the  dangers  of  accidental  asphyxiation 
through  the  escape  of  illuminating  gas,  due  to  defects  in  old  fixtures  and 
pipes,  and  that  investigation  has  been  continued  during  the  period  cov- 
ered by  this  report. 

"  The  coroner  expressed  an  opinion  that  the  deaths  which  took  place 
in  January,  1895,  at  922  G  street  S.  W.  and  33  H  street  N.  E.,  were  due 
entirely  to  defective  gas  fixtures.  He  at  that  time  recommended  that 
a  thorough  inspection  of  all  buildings,  especially  sleeping  apartments 
therein,  be  made  relative  to  the  condition  of  the  gas  fixtures.  Two 


Accidents  with  Gas  233 

similar  instances  were  brought  to  public  notice  in  December,  1896,  and 
January,  1897,  the  two  deaths  being  directly  caused  by  accidental  open- 
ing of  seriously  defective  keys. 

"  In  February,  1897,  a  list  of  the  principal  hotels  and  boarding  houses 
was  prepared  and  sent  to  the  commissioners  with  a  request  that  it  be 
determined  if  authority  existed  to  make  inspection  of  the  gas  appliances 
in  these  buildings.  The  opinion  rendered  by  the  attorney  was  an 
adverse  one  and  no  further  action  was  taken.  I  consider  that  the  con- 
ditions justify  the  enactment  of  a  statute,  allowing  the  entrance  of  my 
assistants  for  such  examination,  and  compelling  repairs  after  due  service 
of  notice. 

"  That  this  subject  is  deemed  of  pressing  importance  in  other  muni- 
cipalities is  evidenced  by  the  report  made  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
by  the  Board  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Commissioners  of  the  city  of 
Boston  (February  10,  1897).  This  report  states  that  four  propositions 
have  been  considered,  viz. : 

1.  "To  require  the  use,  in  the  sleeping  rooms  of  hotels  and  lodging 
houses,  of  some  kind  of  burner  from  which  the  gas  cannot  escape  except 
when  lighted. 

2.  "  To  prohibit  the  use  of  gas  in  sleeping  rooms  which  contain  less 
than  a  definite  number  of  cubic  feet. 

3.  "  To  provide  for  the  systematic  inspection  of  gas  fixtures  and  piping 
by  some  duly  authorized  public  official. 

4.  "  To  define  by  statute  the  amount  of  CO  or  other  ingredient  which 
may  exist  in  the  gas,  and  to  prohibit  the  distribution  of  gas  containing 
an  excess  of  such  ingredients. 

"  The  apparent  conclusion  reached  by  this  board  respecting  the  third 
proposition  is  that  the  number  of  fixtures  (estimated  at  1,200,000  burners 
in  Boston)  is  prohibitive  of  the  proposed  inspection.  *  I  do  not  agree 
with  this  conclusion,  but  consider  it  entirely  feasible  to  make  periodic 
inspection  of  the  condition  of  a  very  large  number  of  gas  fixtures  if  the 
requisite  authorization  can  be  secured." 

A  still  more  serious  matter  is  the  frequent  escape  of  gas  into 
houses  from  breaks  or  leaks  in  the  street  mains.  These  escapes 
may  occur  into  houses  which  are  not  provided  with  a  gas  service. 
As  long  as  the  pungent  odor  of  the  gas  warns  the  occupants  of 
the  leak,  the  danger  of  an  accident  may  be  averted.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  gas,  after  filtering  through  the  soil,  loses  some- 
times its  peculiar  odor,  and  cases  of  entire  families  being 
asphyxiated  from  the  escape  of  gas  are  by  no  means  uncommon. 
Very  often  such  escapes  merely  cause  sickness  or  headache,  and, 


234  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

the  true  cause  not  being  at  once  apparent,  the  gas  company  is 
not  notified  and  the  leaks  are  not  immediately  repaired.  Such 
escapes  are  particularly  dangerous  in  winter  time,  when,  by  reason 
of  being  heated,  the  houses  act  like  huge  chimneys  in  drawing 
up  the  gas-polluted  air.  Where  the  street  surface  is  paved 
with  impermeable  pavements  like  asphalt,  and  in  winter  when 
other  kinds  of  street  surfaces  are  frozen  hard,  the  escape  into 
the  interior  of  houses  is  much  more  likely  to  occur  than  where 
the  pavement  is  an  old-fashioned  loosely  jointed  cobblestone 
pavement.  The  report  referred  to  states  that  from  1889-1896, 
13  cases  of  this  kind  occurred,  in  which  75  people  were  rendered 
unconscious. 

Finally,  the  air  of  houses  may  be  continuously  contaminated 
by  slight  escapes  due  to  leaky  house  gas  pipes,  or  to  defective 
fixtures,  loose  bracket  joints,  or  worn-out  gas  keys.  The  leaks 
may  be  so  slight  as  to  be  hardly  noticeable.  In  many  cases  of 
headaches,  languor,  nausea,  drowsiness,  prostration,  or  loss  of 
consciousness,  the  cause  is  to  be  sought  in  a  slight  escape  of  gas. 
The  public  is  generally  inclined  to  attribute  such  illness  to 
"  sewer  gas"  entering  the  house  through  defective  plumbing, 
and  the  true  cause  is  seldom  thought  of.  A  writer  in  a  recent 
issue  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  speaks  about  the  danger 
as  follows: 

"  A  frequent  cause  of  neuralgia  and  headaches  is  the  poison  of  illumi- 
nating gas.  When  the  house  is  supplied  with  what  is  known  as  '  water 
gas  '  a  recurrence  of  such  maladies  should  prompt  a  very  careful  investi- 
gation of  the  fixtures.  Water  gas  contains  a  poison  of  admitted  viru- 
lence, and  the  fact  that  it  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  odorless  makes  its 
power  for  evil  the  greater.  Absolutely  tight  fixtures  are  the  only  pro- 
tection. .  .  .  Periodical  examination  is  essential,  for  what  seems  secure 
to-day  may  be  insecure  to-morrow.  Old  fixtures  are  likely  to  be  loose  i  n 
screws  or  joints,  the  threads  of  the  thumb  screw  may  be  worn  out  and 
turn  at  a  touch  to  let  the  poison  escape  with  no  one  the  wiser,  or  in  mov- 
ing furniture  the  arm  of  a  chandelier  or  side  bracket  may  be  wrenched 
enough  to  permit  its  escape.  A  safe  plan  is  to  have  each  fixture  put 
through  what  is  called  the  pressure  test.  This  properly  done  by  a  good 
plumber  will  show  quickly  any  defects  or  chances  for  leakage." 

Not  long  ago,  the  writer  had  in  his  own  house  a  case  in  point. 
When  the  gas  was  lit  in  the  evening,  a  peculiar  odor  arose,  which 
caused  severe  headache,  but  for  which  the  reason  could  not  be 
immediately  ascertained,  as  the  odor  ceased  completely  in  day- 


Accidents  with  Gas  235 

time,  when  the  gas  fixtures  were  turned  off.  The  house  gas 
pipes  were  tested  and  found  in  a  tight  condition.  The  gas 
fixtures  also  showed  no  leaks.  The  gas  company  was  sent  for  to 
clean  out  the  main  service,  it  having  occurred  to  the  writer  that 
an  accumulation  of  naphthaline  in  the  meter  or  the  house  pipes 
or  the  service  might  cause  the  gas,  when  burning,  to  smell  in  the 
way  it  did.  The  service  was  thoroughly  cleaned  out;  the  meter 
was  removed,  emptied,  and  cleaned;  the  house  pipes  were  blown 
out  by  means  of  a  pressure  pump,  but  all  to  no  avail;  the  odor 
returned  in  the  evening  when  the  gas  was  burning.  After  much 
searching,  the  cause  was  at  last  found  in  slight  leaks  at  the 
burner  joints,  which  permitted  an  escape  of  unburnt  gas  only 
when  the  keys  were  open  and  the  flames  lit.  These  joints  were 
then  made  tight  with  white  lead  and  the  odor  immediately 
ceased. 

In  the  statistics  of  gas  accidents,  other  less  frequent  causes 
appear,  among  which  I  mention  the  following : 

(a)  Gas  and  electric  fixtures  so  constructed  that  the  gas  key 
may  be  accidentally  turned  in  the  dark  instead  of  the  electric 
key. 

(6)  Gas  escaping  from  the  gas  cooking  stove  by  reason  of  the 
water  boiling  over  and  extinguishing  the  gas  flame. 

(c)  The  breeze  from  an  open  window  blowing  out  a  gas  flame 
which  has  been  turned  down  low,  the  gas  then  escaping  unburnt 
and  causing  an  accident. 

(d)  A  flame  turned  down  low  for  the  night  being  extinguished 
by  a  sudden  reduction  in  the  gas  pressure. 

(e)  The  connecting  rubber  hose  of  a  gas  heating  stove  becoming 
either  loose  in  the  joint  or  completely  detached  and  causing  an 
escape  of  unburned  gas. 

(/)  Two  gas  keys,  one  for  light,  the  other  for  a  gas  stove,  being 
placed  so  near  together  that  one  might  be  mistaken  for  the  other 
and  turned  on  unintentionally. 

(g)  The  tubing  of  a  gas  chandelier  or  other  fixture  becoming 
split  and  permitting  escapes  of  gas. 

(h)  Disarranged  electric  gas-lighting  fittings  intended  by  the 
pulling  of  a  chain  to  open  a  valve,  letting  out  the  gas,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  light  it  by  a  spark. 

(i)  Finally,  gas  leaks  may  cause  headaches  or  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, where  gas  escapes  from  the  rubber  hose  connection  to  a 
table  gas  lamp. 


236  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

The  majority  of  cases  quoted  are  clearly  due  to  lack  of  a 
reasonable  and  ordinary  care  on  the  part  of  the  gas  consumers. 
What  is  much  needed  is  the  giving  of  plain  instructions  to  gas 
users.  Emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  illuminating 
gas  is  a  highly  dangerous  substance,  and  that  due  care  is  required 
in  its  use.  The  danger  of  asphyxiation  is  somewhat  greater 
where  water  gas  is  manufactured  and  distributed,  for  reasons 
explained  heretofore. 

It  is  not  the  author's  intention  to  create  a  prejudice  by  these 
notes  against  the  use  of  lighting  gas  or  gaseous  fuel,  for  as  long  as 
it  is  confined  in  tight  pipes,  gas  is  perfectly  harmless,  and  if 
burnt  properly,  or  used  with  reasonable  care,  there  is  not  the 
slightest  danger  connected  with  its  use.  Even  the  fire  risk  is 
comparatively  small.  Statistics  gathered  by  German  fire 
insurance  companies  show  that  in  the  five  years  from  1881-1885 
14.7  per  cent  of  the  fires  caused  by  lighting  were  due  to  gas, 
whereas  85.3  per  cent  were  due  to  the  use  of  kerosene  and  oil 
lamps.  In  1892,  1089  fires  arose  from  kerosene  and  oil,  and 
only  80  fires  from  gas. 


CHAPTER  XXIV.    * 

DANGERS  TO  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  FROM  ILLUMINATING 
AND  FUEL  GAS. 

THE  American  Public  Health  Association,  some  years  ago, 
appointed  a  committee  of  which  the  author  was  a  member,  to 
investigate  the  subject  of  illuminating  gas  in  relation  to  health, 
and  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  association,  held  at  Minneapolis, 
in  1899,  the  author  submitted  a  paper  bearing  the  title  of  this 
chapter,  which  paper  is  reprinted  herewith  in  revised  form. 

Owing  to  recent  progress  in  the  art  of  manufacturing  gas,  the 
subject  is  now  much  more  difficult  to  treat  than  it  was  twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago,  when  scarcely  anything  else  but  the  ordinary 
lighting  gas,  manufactured  by  a  process  of  distillation  from 
coal,  was  known.  About  thirty  years  ago  gas  companies  began 
the  manufacture  and  introduction  of  the  so-called  water  gas,  and 
several  investigations  were  conducted  and  reports  made  at  that 
time  *  with  regard  to  the  dangers  involved  in  the  new  gas. 
Still  more  recently,  not  more  than  sixteen  years  ago,  the  manu- 
facture of  acetylene  gas  from  calcium  carbide  began.  While 
the  use  of  acetylene  gas  is,  at  present,  largely  confined  to  iso- 
lated buildings  not  in  reach  of  city  gas  works  (see  Chapter  XIX) 
it  promises  a  rapid  development  within  the  next  decade. 

To  discuss  intelligently  a  subject  of  such  great  importance, 
and  to  make  the  work  of  a  committee  investigating  the  subject 

*  See  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott.  "  The  relation  of  illuminating  gas  to  pub- 
lic health,"  Sixth  Annual  Report  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity,  1885. 

See  Professors  Sedgwick  and  Nichols,  "  A  study  of  the  relative  poison- 
ous effects  of  coal  and  water  gas,"  same  report,  1885. 

Prof.  Edw.  S.  Wood,  "  Illuminating  gas  in  its  relation  to  health." 
Vol.  III.  (Trans.  A.P.H.A.,  1877.) 

Dr.  Jos.  H.  Raymond,  "  Illuminating  gas;  its  history  and  its  dangers." 
Tenth  Annual  Report,  State  Board  of  Health  of  New  Jersey. 

William  Paul  Gerhard,  "  Accidents  with  gas."  Amer.  Arch.,  Aug.  6, 
1896. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Health  of  Brooklyn  on  Illuminating  Gas. 
1883. 

237 


238  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

effective,  an  intimate  knowledge  and  practical  experience  in  the 
manufacture  and  distribution  of  gas,  in  the  work  of  piping 
houses  for  gas  and  in  the  different  uses  of  gas,  are  necessary. 
It  would,  therefore,  seem  best  to  place  on  such  a  committee 
a  chemist  or  chemical  technologist,  acquainted  with  modern 
methods  of  generation,  purification,  and  analysis  of  gas;  a  gas 
engineer  or  a  sanitary  engineer,  who  has  made  a  specialty  of  the 
entire  subject  of  domestic  and  street  gas-piping  and  gas  light- 
ing; and  finally  a  physician,  health  officer,  or  sanitarian,  who 
should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  sanitary  features  and  require- 
ments of  lighting,  with  the  unhealthful  effects  due  to  the  com- 
bustive  processes,  and  with  the  dangers  due  to  gas  escaping 
unburned. 

The  aeriform  mixture,  commonly  known  as  gas,  is  nowadays 
used  not  only  as  an  illuminant,  but  also  as  fuel  (for  heating, 
cooking,  and  industrial  purposes) ;  in  a  few  cities  a  special  quality 
of  gas,  not  fit  for  illumination,  is  distributed  to  consumers  for  use 
as  gaseous  fuel ;  in  other  cities  what  is  known  as  natural  or  rock 
gas  is  introduced  into  houses  for  like  purposes  (see  Chapter  VIII). 
Hence  the  scope  of  the  inquiry  would,  perhaps,  be  enlarged  by 
either  omitting  the  word  " illuminating"  before  the  word  "gas," 
or  else  using  the  term  " illuminating  and  fuel"  gas.  For  other 
reasons  it  seems  advisable  to  omit  the  words  " leakage  from" 
and  to  call  the  subject  "  Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  from 
Illuminating  and  Fuel  Gas. " 

By  way  of  introduction,  the  different  known  kinds  of  gas,  their 
manufacture  and  composition,  will  be  briefly  reviewed;  likewise 
the  usual  impurities  found  in  them,  and  in  particular  their  dan- 
gerous or  poisonous  ingredients. 

From  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  it  is  important  to  consider  not 
only  the  danger  incident  to  gas  escaping  un burnt,  but  also  the 
effects  upon  health  due  to  the  burning  of  gas.  Gas  escapes  and 
leaks  may  occur  at  the  place  of  manufacture  or  the  gas  works, 
in  the  distributing  system  in  the  public  streets,  and  finally  at  the 
places  of  consumption,  —  in  the  houses,  offices,  or  shops.  The 
last  subject  is  of  particular  importance,  and  hence  will  be  more 
fully  discussed  under  the  headings  of  dangers  due  to  the  gas 
service  pipes  in  houses,  to  the  gas  fixtures,  and  to  the  use  and 
management  of  gas.  Following  this,  it  is  desirable  to  review  the 
remedies  and  precautions  suggested  or  enacted  for  the  lessening 
of  the  dangers  and  fatalities  due  to  gas. 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health 


239 


Different  Kinds  of  Gas  — '  Their  Manufacture  and  Composition. 

At  the  present  time,  we  may  distinguish  the  following  kinds 
of  gas,  viz. : 

1.  Natural  gas. 

2.  Coal  gas. 

3.  Water  gas. 

4.  Carburetted  or  luminous  water  gas. 

5.  Air  or  naphtha  gas. 

6.  Acetylene  gas. 

7.  Gas  from  oil,  wood,  resin,  etc. 

Natural  or  rock  gas  consists  of  an  accumulation  of  hydro- 
carbons found  in  nature  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It 
sometimes  flows  freely  at  the  surface,  like  the  eternal  gas  fires 
at  Baku,  Russia,  or  else  it  is  liberated  by  boring.  It  is  really 
the  same  as  marsh  gas  or  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  known  in 
mines  as  fire  damp.  In  burning  it  usually  produces  little  light, 
the  flame  being  bluish  yellow,  and  is  therefore  suitable  princi- 
pally as  fuel  gas,  though  some  natural  gas  contains  illuminating 
or  heavy  hydrocarbons,  and  can  be  used  for  lighting.  Mixed 
with  ten  times  its  volume  of  air,  this  gas  ignites  with  a  violent 
explosion,  when  a  light  is  applied.  The  composition  of  natural 
gas  varies,  as  seen  from  the  following  three  analyses : 


I. 

II. 

III. 

Marsh  gas  
Hvdrosren 

49.58 
35  92 

75.16 
14  45 

60  to  89 
4  79  to  22  5 

Ethylhydride  .... 
Ethylene  .... 

12.30 
0  60 

4.80 
0  60 

4  to  18 
0  56  to  2  94 

Oxygen  

0.40 

1.20 

Carbonic  oxide  .... 
Carbonic  acid  .... 
Nitrogen  

0.40 

0.30 
0.30 
2.89 

traces  to  0.26 
0.28  to  0.66 

Coal  gas  is  made  from  bituminous  coal,  by  a  process  of  dis- 
tillation in  closed  retorts.  It  may  be  termed  the  ordinary 
illuminating  gas,  as  it  was  the  first  lighting  gas  manufactured 
and  distributed  on  a  large  scale.  Such  coal  gas  is  really  a  more 
or  less  purified  mixture  of  a  number  of  distinct  gaseous  com- 
bustible substances,  of  which  some  are  luminous,  while  others 
burn  with  a  non-luminous  flame.  Its  manufacture  embraces 
three  principal  processes,  viz.,  the  distillation,  the  condensation, 
and  the  purification  of  the  gas.  When  coal  gas  is  distilled  in 


240 


Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 


retorts,  the  resulting  vapors  which  contain  hurtful  impurities 
are  first  condensed,  and  tar  and  water  is  thereby  removed;  the 
subsequent  processes  of  condensation  in  condensers  remove 
carbonic  acid  and  some  ammonia;  in  the  washers  and  scrubbers 
ammonia  is  removed,  while  the  purifiers  free  the  gas  of  carbonic 
acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  other  gaseous  sulphur  com- 
pounds, by  means  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  composition 
of  purified  coal  gas  is  about  as  follows: 


I. 

II. 

III. 

Hydrogen  

50.2 

(Pettenkofer) 
49 

40   to  50 

Marsh  gas  
Carbonic  oxide  
Heavy  hydrocarbon  

29.8 
7.9 
4.3 

36 

7 
8 

35    to  45 
4.5to  7.5 

Nitrogen  

7.8 

100.0 

100.0 

Olefiant  gas, 
small   amounts 
carbonic  acid. 

A  few  actual  analyses  of  coal  gas  are  here  quoted,  the  differences 
in  them  being  due  to  the  kind  of  coal  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  gas. 


Boston  Coal  Gas. 

(Nichols.) 

London  Coal  Gas.      (Lethe  by.) 

Marsh  gas    .... 
Hydrogen    .... 

.   40.0 
.34.8 

37.41 
46.38 
3.72 
5.53 
6.19 
0.25 
0.52 

Light  carburetted  hydrogen   .   39.5 
Hydrogen  46.0 
Condensible  hydrocarbons  .    .     3.8 
Carbonic  oxide    7.5 
Aqueous  vapor    2.0 

Nitrogen  

.   14.2 

Carbonic  oxide  .    . 
Illuminants    .    .    . 
Oxygen    

.     7.0 
.     3.4 
.     0.5 
.     0.1 

Oxygen  0.1 

Carbonic  acid     .    . 

Nitrogen    0.5 
Carbonic  acid                                   0  6 

Water  gas  or  hydrogen  gas  is  made  by  passing  steam  over 
incandescent  carbon  or  glowing  coals.  The  resulting  gas  is 
odorless  and  non-luminous,  but  owing  to  its  large  amount  of 
hydrogen  it  burns  with  great  heat,  hence  this  gas  is  excellent 
for  fuel  purposes.  The  coal  used  in  the  process  is  anthracite 
coal.  Theoretically,  water  gas  is  composed  of  50  per  cent  hydro- 
gen and  50  per  cent  carbonic  oxide.  It  should  be  pointed  out 
that  pure  water  gas  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of  carbonic 
oxide,  which  is  the  dangerous  element  in  all  gas. 

Carburetted  or  luminous  water  gas  is  a  mixture  of  pure  water  gas 
and  petroleum,  naphtha  or  cannel  gas,  the  latter  gases  being 
heavy  hydrocarbons  mixed  with  it  to  give  it  luminosity,  to 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health 


241 


render  it  fit  for  lighting  purposes  and  to  give  it  a  distinct  odor. 
This  is  done  by  the  so-called  carburetting  process.  Since  about 
thirty  years  a  great  many  gas  works  (nearly  two-thirds  in 
United  States,  according  to  Professor  Bunte)  manufacture  and 
supply  this  composite  gas,  the  chief  reasons  for  preferring  this 
process  being  the  reduction  in  first  cost  of  the  works,  the  easier 
purification,  the  smaller  area  required  for  manufacturing,  the 
possibility  of  using  coke,  the  doing  away  with  some  of  the  side 
products  or  residues,  and  the  cheapening  in  the  cost  of  manu- 
facturing the  gas. 

There  are  many  different  processes  in  use  for  making  car- 
buretted  water  gas  (Lowe,  Strong,  Gwynne-Harie,  Harkness, 
Tessie  de  Motay),  and  the  composition  of  the  manufactured  gas, 
as  well  as  its  lighting  qualities,  vary  greatly.  A  few  analyses 
are  quoted  as  examples: 


Composition  of  Water  Gas.  (Remsen.) 

Water  Gas 

( 

of  Municipal  G; 
'N.  Y.)  (Wurtz. 

is  Lfght  Co. 

) 

I- 

II. 

III. 

Hydrogen    

Marsh  gas 

30.3 
21.45 

38.05 
11  85 

36.34 
20  55 

Carbonic  oxide 

28.25 

29  40 

27  46 

Carbonic  acid  gas         . 

0.3 

0.10 

0  35 

Ox  vsren 

0.10 

0  26 

N^itro°ren             

6.85 

3.71 

2.56 

Olefine 

9  29 

Paraffines 

7.50 

Illuminating  hydrocarbons       .    . 

12.82 

12.48 

Air  or  machine-made  gas,  or  carburetted  air  gas,  is  a  simple 
mixture  of  atmospheric  air  with  the  vapor  of  naphtha,  benzol, 
petroleum,  or  gasoline.  The  use  of  such  gas  is  largely  confined 
to  the  lighting  of  isolated  buildings  not  in  reach  of  gas  works. 
The  apparatus  for  its  manufacture  consists,  in  its  simplest  form, 
of  a  blower  and  a  generator.  The  latter  is  placed  in  a  brick 
vault,  at  a  good  distance  from  a  building,  and  is  filled  with 
refined  gasoline,  which  is  a  very  volatile  inflammable  liquid. 
A  blower  or  air  pump  is  placed  in  the  cellar  of  the  building; 
this  is  operated  either  by  a  suspended  weight  (which  must  be 
wound  up  same  as  the  weights  of  a  clock)  or  by  a  wheel  driven 
by  water.  It  forces  air  into  the  generator,  which  here  takes  up 
the  vapors  of  the  naphtha  and  so  enriched  is  delivered  to  the 
house  to  be  consumed  (see  Chapter  XIX). 


24:2  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

It  burns  with  a  tolerably  good,  luminous  flame;  the  gas 
being  very  heavy  flows  comparatively  slowly,  hence  large  pipes 
and  burners  are  required.  The  flame  is  seldom  free  from 
smoking. 

The  gasoline  itself,  from  which  the  gas  is  made,  is  a  very 
volatile  and  highly  inflammable  liquid,  which  gives  off  vapors 
at  ordinary  temperature.  Mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
air,  the  machine  or  air  gas  is  very  explosive. 

Acetylene  gas  is  the  latest  comer  in  the  field  of  gas  manufacture. 
This  gas  has  been  known  chemically  since  1836  (Edmund  Davy, 
chemist)  as  the  most  brilliant  of  illuminating  gases.  In  1861, 
the  chemist  Woehler,  and  in  1862,  Berthelot,  prepared  the  gas  in 
the  laboratory  from  calcium  carbide  and  water.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  1892,  the  French  chemist,  Henri  Moissan,  made 
small  quantities  of  calcium  carbide  in  a  laboratory  furnace. 
But  the  commercial  manufacture  of  crystalline  carbide  on  a 
larger  scale  in  electric  furnaces  was  discovered  accidentally  in 
May,  1892,  by  an  electrician,  Thomas  L.  Willson,  of  Canada. 
Before  that  time,  calcium  carbide  was  a  very  expensive  chem- 
ical, costing  about  $2000  per  ton;  after  Willson's  discovery  its 
price  immediately  dropped  to  $70. 

Acetylene  gas  has  a  very  peculiar,  easily  detected  garlic-like 
and  unpleasant  odor;  it  is  an  ignitible  gas,  rich  in  hydrocarbons, 
and  is  generated  by  bringing  calcium  carbide  in  contact  with 
water.  It  is  composed  of  92.3  parts  by  weight  of  carbon,  and 
7.7  parts  of  hydrogen.  When  mixed  with  air,  in  a  proportion 
from  1  to  4  up  to  1  to  20,  acetylene  gas  is  very  explosive,  its 
explosive  force  being  much  stronger  than  that  of  coal  or  water 
gas.  The  more  the  gas  is  condensed,  the  more  explosive  it 
becomes,  and  in  its  liquefied  form  it  is  so  dangerous  that  its 
use  is  at  present  everywhere  prohibited. 

The  purity  of  acetylene  gas  depends  upon  the  purity  of  the 
raw  material  from  which  it  is  made.  Calcium  carbide  always 
contains  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  nitrogen,  and  unless  purified 
the  resulting  acetylene  gas  will  contain  phosphoretted  hydro- 
gen, sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  ammonia.  The  improved  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide  do  away  with  these 
impurities.  Purified  acetylene  is  not  as  dangerous  to  breathe  as 
coal  or  water  gas;  it  takes  also,  in  burning,  less  oxygen  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  creates  much  less  carbonic  acid  in  combustion 
than  the  ordinary  gas.  It  is,  too,  of  a  much  higher  luminosity 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  243 

than  ordinary  gas,  burns  with  a  white  flame,  and  owing  to  its 
richness  in  hydrocarbons,  special  burners,  with  small  orifices  or 
jets,  and  burning  only  0.5  cubic  foot  of  gas  per  hour,  must  be 
used ;  these  give  about  25  candlepower  light  against  16  candle- 
power  of  the  ordinary  3-  to  6-cubic-foot-per-hour  burners. 

The  ammonia  contained  in  acetylene  gas  will  form  a  chemical 
explosive  combination  with  copper,  hence  copper  gas-fixtures, 
piping,  or  generators  should  not  be  used. 

Numerous  forms  of  apparatus  for  making  acetylene  gas  have 
been  devised.  Practically,  they  all  belong  to  one  of  the  follow- 
ing three  types  of  generators : 

(a)  Those  in  which  a  measured  quantity  of  water  is  supplied 
gradually  to  a  large  volume  of  calcium  carbide,  contained  in  a 
closed  vessel. 

(6)  Generators  in  which  the  carbide  is  immersed  in  water 
and  then  withdrawn,  the  action  being  repeated  from  time  to 
time. 

(c)  Generators  arranged  so  that  a  measured  quantity  of  car- 
bide is  dropped  into  a  large  volume  of  water. 

The  generator  and  the  gasometer  may  be  fitted  up  separately 
or  together.  From  the  point  of  view  of  safety,  it  is  advisable 
to  place  the  generator  in  a  brick  vault  outside  of  a  building 
(the  same  as  with  air-gas  machines). 

Owing  to  the  necessary  use  of  very  small  burners,  it  will  take 
a  much  longer  time  before  a  room,  in  which  a  gas  cock  is  left 
open,  will  hold  a  mixture  dangerous  to  health.  The  odor  of 
acetylene  being  very  peculiar  and  distinct,  a  small  leak  is 
rendered  very  noticeable. 

Quite  recently  a  new  lighting  gas  made  from  pure  acetylene 
gas  by  dilution  has  been  used,  as  the  following  item  from  the 
London  Daily  Mail  shows: 

"The  first  place  in  the  United  Kingdom  to  be  illuminated  with  the 
bright  white  light  of  '  Electroid  Gas  '  is  Hunmanby,  a  Yorkshire  village 
near  Scarborough.  This  new  illuminant  is  composed  of  acetylene  with 
the  admixture  of  inert  matter  and  a  proportion  of  oxygen.  Its  manu- 
facture is  claimed  to  be  of  the  simplest  nature.  The  gas  can  be  delivered 
through  any  ordinary  gas  main  at  the  ordinary  pressure,  measured  by 
means  of  gas  meters,  and  charged  for  in  the  same  way  as  is  the  custom 
where  ordinary  coal  gas  is  used.  The  light  is  described  as  perfectly 
white,  and  equal  to  250  candlepower,  as  against  the  average  17  candle- 
power  of  coal  gas. " 


244  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

According  to  an  article  by  Dr.  Paul  Wolff  in  a  recent  issue 
of  Glaser's  Annalen  fur  Gewerbe  und  Bauwesen,  the  town  of 
Schonsee,  in  West  Prussia,  is  now  supplied  with  acetylene  gas 
from  a  large  plant,  designed  for  2000  burners  (Eng.  Record, 
October  21,  1899). 

Finally,  gas  is  made  from  oils,  melted  fat,  resin,  petroleum, 
peat,  and  from  wood.  Owing  to  the  cost  of  these  materials,  only 
few  oil  or  wood  gas-works  are  in  existence.  Gas  is  made  from 
petroleum  or  from  naphtha  by  decomposing  the  same  in  heated 
retorts.  Such  gas  requires  no  purification,  is  very  rich  in  heavy 
hydrocarbons,  but  is  too  expensive  to  be  sold  in  a  commercial 
way.  It  is  used  more  as  a  means  to  enrich  the  non-luminous 
water  gas,  and  to  render  the  same  less  dangerous  in  use  by 
imparting  to  it  a  distinct  smell. 

Impurities  in  Gas.  —  Tests  for  Impurities. 

The  gaseous  impurities  of  ordinary  coal  gas  are  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  vapor  of  carbon  disulphide,  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia. 
These  reduce  the  lighting  qualities  of  the  gas,  and  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  in  burning,  produces  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acids, 
which  are  destructive  to  metallic  articles,  plants,  and  generally 
injurious.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  can  be  traced  by  holding  a 
strip  of  paper,  dipped  in  sugar  of  lead,  which,  in  the  presence  of 
this  impurity,  becomes  discolored  and  turns  brown,  the  intensity 
of  the  latter  color  being  an  indication  of  the  degree  of  impurity. 

Carbonic  acid  can  be  detected  by  leading  the  gas  through 
lime  water,  which  thereby  becomes  cloudy  or  white.  The 
presence  of  ammonia  is  indicated  by  dipping  a  glass  rod  in 
muriatic  acid  and  holding  it  over  an  open  gas  burner,  when  a 
white  fog  will  form. 

The  purification  processes  remove  all  but  a  small  quantity  of 
these  gaseous  impurities. 

y 

Dangerous  or  Poisonous  Ingredients  in  Gas. 

While  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  a  poisonous  ingredient,  the 
quantity  contained  in  well-purified  gas  is  so  small  that  it  may  be 
disregarded.  From  a  health  point  of  view,  the  really  dangerous 
poisonous  ingredient  of  both  coal  and  water  gas  is  the  carbon 
monoxide.  This  is  present  in  both  kinds  of  gas,  the  amount  in 
coal  gas  being  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  and  in  carburetted  water 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  245 

gas  from  25  to  40  per  ceiit.  Chemistry  teaches  that  carbon 
monoxide,  or  carbonic  oxide,  is  a  colorless  and  tasteless  gas,  a 
little  lighter  than  air,  which  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  forming 
carbonic  acid.  It  acts  as  a  strong  poison,  producing  asphyxia 
and  often  death  when  inhaled  in  "small  quantities.  Its  toxic 
effect  is  due  to  a  combination  with  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood, 
which  is  thereby  rendered  unfit  to  take  up  oxygen  in  the  lungs. 

In  coal  gas  as  well  as  in  carburetted  water  gas  the  carbonic 
oxide  is  simply  a  diluent,  the  same  as  the  marsh  gas.  It  does 
not  appear  to  be  practically  possible  to  remove  it  from  ordinary 
coal  gas,  though  it  is  stated  that  a  part  of  it  can  be  removed  from 
water  gas. 

As  regards  the  danger  from  explosions,  the  light  carburetted 
hydrogen,  and  to  some  extent  the  defiant  gas  or  the  heavy 
carburetted  hydrogen,  are  the  dangerous  elements,  for  these 
mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  atmospheric  air,  form  a  mix- 
ture which  explodes  when  ignited. 

Dangers  in  the  Use  of  Gas. 

When  lighting  gas  was  first  made,  objections  were  raised 
against  its  use,  because  of  the  products  of  illumination,  when  the 
gas  was  burnt.  But  nowadays  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that 
no  serious  danger  to  health,  beyond  the  mere  contamination  of 
the  air,  results  from  the  burning  of  purified  illuminating  gas. 
The  contamination  of  the  atmosphere  can,  of  course,  be  counter- 
acted by  proper  and  sufficient  ventilation.  Theoretically  the 
products  of  burning  gas  are  water  and  carbonic  dioxide. 

Unburned  gas,  however,  is  dangerous,  no  matter  how  made. 
Escapes  of  unburned  gas  are  therefore  to  be  avoided.  The 
dangers  are  twofold,  viz.,  first,  asphyxiation,  and  second, 
explosions;  the  latter  sometimes  accompanied  by  fire.  The 
danger  of  asphyxia  is  greatest  with  pure  water  gas;  next  comes 
carburetted  water  gas;  then  gas  made  from  wood,  coal  gas,  and 
finally  natural  gas.  Neither  the  air  gas  nor  the  acetylene  con- 
tain carbonic  oxide,  though  the  breathing  of  such  gas  may  be 
injurious  for  other  reasons.  The  danger  of  gas  explosions, 
caused  by  mixtures  of  gas  and  common  air  becoming  ignited, 
is  present  with  all  kinds  of  gas,  though  the  proportions  between 
gas  and  air,  which  are  explosive,  differ  somewhat  with  the 
different  kinds  of  gas. 


246  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Escapes  or  Leaks  of  Gas. 

Dangerous  escapes  of  gas  may  occur  either  at  the  works, 
where  the  gas  is  manufactured,  or  in  the  distribution  system  in 
the  streets,  or  finally  in  the  houses  when  the  gas  is  consumed 
as  fuel  or  as  illuminant,  or  for  power  purposes.  Gas  escapes  in 
buildings  are  either  due  to  leaks,  or  to  carelessness  or  ignorance 
in  the  use  of  gas,  or  to  accidents.* 

Dangers  Incident  to  the  Manufacture  of  Gas. 

At  the  gas  works,  where  either  coal  or  water  gas,  or  carburetted 
water  gas  is  manufactured,  the  workmen  are  to  some  extent 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  explosions  due  to  escaping  gas,  and 
on  the  other  hand  they  are  liable  to  suffer  from  breathing  gas 
which  may  escape  from  the  retorts,  the  gas-holder,  or  other 
points  in  the  works.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  acci- 
dents at  gas  works  from  the  inhalation  of  coal  or  water  gas 
are  comparatively  rare.  Where  water  gas  is  manufactured, 
there  is  of  course  a  greater  danger  than  with  coal  gas,  owing  to 
its  larger  percentage  of  carbonic  oxide.  Good  ventilation  in 
the  gas  works  is  always  an  essential  condition.  The  workmen 
in  gas  works  are  also  liable  to  suffer  from  exposure  to  the  heat 
and  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  The  ammonia  of 
unpurified  gas  attacks  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory 
organs.  Besides  this,  the  workmen  may  suffer  from  the  vapors 
caused  by  the  extinguishing  of  the  burning  cokes,  and,  in  the 
purifying  department,  workmen  who  clean  and  empty  the  lime 
boxes  are  liable  to  inflammation  of  the  eyes  from  the  gases  and 
odors. 

Dangers  Incident  to  the  Distribution  of  Gas. 

The  gas  distribution  system  embraces  the  street  mains,  the 
house  and  lamp  services,  and  the  gas  meters.  Gas  leaks  caused 
by  a  break  of  a  street  main  are  generally  noticeable  by  the 
intense  smell  of  gas,  and  in  the  case  of  smaller  gas  works  by 
the  sudden  falling  of  the  station  gas-holder. 

There  is  always  some  leakage  of  gas  connected  with  the  dis- 
tribution mains,  the  gas  escaping  either  at  the  joints  or  from 
imperfect  pipes,  or  finally  from  breaks  in  the  mains.  From  7  to 
10  per  cent  of  the  daily  output  is  estimated  to  be  lost  by  leakage 

*  See  Gerhard,  W.  P.  Accidents  with  gas  —  American  Architect,  August 
6,  1898. 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  247 

from  the  gas  mains.  In  1894  the  gas  leakage  per  mile  of  main 
in  Philadelphia  amounted  to  the  enormous  volume  of  871,000 
cubic  feet  per  annum.  Cases  of  asphyxiation  occur  when 
workmen  make  connections  with  the  gas  mains  (so-called  "  tap- 
ping"), or  when  they  go  into  trenches,  in  which  a  broken  gas 
main  is  to  be  repaired. 

The  chief  danger  connected  with  escapes  of  gas  under  the 
street  surface  is  that  the  gas  will  often  find  its  way  through  the 
soil  and  escape  into  the  houses  located  along  the  street.  When 
such  gas  leakages  occur,  the  characteristic  pungent  odor  of  the 
gas  is  sometimes  partly  or  completely  lost  by  filtration  through 
the  soil.  Where  this  is  the  case,  it  is  much  more  difficult  to 
detect  a  leak  or  break,  and  the  buildings  and  their  occupants 
along  the  line  of  such  defective  or  broken  gas  main  become 
exposed  to  twro  grave  dangers,  namely,  the  danger  of  explosion 
and  of  asphyxiation.  Many  cases  are  on  record  of  people  having 
become  asphyxiated  in  houses  not  provided  with  any  gas  ser- 
vice. This  danger,  as  was  first  pointed  out  years  ago  by  Pro- 
fessor von  Pettenkofer,  is  particularly  great  in  winter  time,  and 
this  for  two  reasons:  first,  the  street  surfaces  are  apt  to  be 
frozen  hard  and  will  not  permit  the  gas  to  escape  upwards  where 
it  would  do  no  harm  and  where  it  might  be  quickly  noticed; 
then  again  it  is  well  known  that  houses  in  winter  time  act  like 
chimneys  by  reason  of  the  temperature  inside  being  higher  than 
that  outside.  They,  therefore,  draw  in  the  ground  air,  as  it 
were,  and  with  it  the  gas  which  has  leaked  into  the  soil.  The 
dangers  are,  of  course,  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  at  night,  and 
in  winter  particularly  so,  the  doors  and  windows  of  bedrooms 
are  usually  kept  closed.  *  Professor  von  Pettenkofer  relates  a 
great  number  of  instances  where  not  only  one  person,  but  some- 
times entire  families,  have  been  found  in  the  morning  asphyxiated 
by  gas  which  entered  houses  in  this  manner.  Sometimes  the 
gas  escaping  from  the  main  will  follow  along  the  line  of  house 
sewers  and  will  thus  gain  entrance  to  the  cellars;  in  other  in- 
stances it  follows  the  tubes  or  conduits  which  enclose  the  elec- 
tric light  wires.  Professor  Wolffhugel  has  drawn  attention  to 
the  fact  that  coal  gas  may  also  lose  its  peculiar  odor  in  passing 
through  floor  deafenings  and  plastered  ceilings. 

Where  no  asphyxiation  occurs,  dangerous  explosions  may 
happen  by  reason  of  the  escaping  gas  mixing  with  the  air.  The 
striking  of  a  match,  or  the  bringing  down  into  the  cellar  of  an 


248  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

open  flame  will  speedily  cause  this  result.  Only  recently,  a 
fatal  gas  explosion  occurred  in  a  residence  street  in  New  York 
City,  in  a  house  which  had  not  been  occupied  for  the  entire 
summer,  but  where  a  workman  had  entered  in  the  morning  to 
make  some  improvements.  Five  minutes  after  he  was  seen  to 
enter  the  house,  an  extremely  violent  explosion  occurred  >.  which 
blew  out  the  entire  front  and  rear  walls  of  the  three-story  brick 
and  stone  building,  causing  a  fire  in  this  and  several  adjoining 
houses,  and  resulting  in  the  death  of  the  unfortunate  workman. 
The  cause  in  this  instance  was  a  broken  gas  main,  from  which 
the  gas  had  been  escaping  into  the  cellars  of  the  houses  along  the 
street  for  probably  many  days  or  weeks. 

The  danger  of  being  asphyxiated  is  in  all  such  cases  much 
greater  where  the  gas  manufactured  is  the  so-called  carburetted 
water  gas.  Where  otherwise  healthy  persons,  living  in  houses 
not  supplied  with  gas,  awake  in  the  morning  with  persistent 
headaches  or  nausea,  it  is  always  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  possi- 
bility of  carbonic  oxide  poisoning  from  gas  escaping  in  the  manner 
described  above. 

In  case  of  a  break  of  a  street  gas  main,  the  most  important 
thing  to  do,  until  the  gas  company  can  shut  off  the  gas  and  reach 
the  leak,  is  to  keep  open  all  windows  of  the  cellar  and  basement, 
also  to  avoid  having  any  open  light. 

It  is  difficult  to  suggest  a  remedy  for  the  conditions  named, 
except  that  wherever  an  escape  of  gas  is  noticed  in  a  street  it 
should  be  immediately  reported  to  the  gas  company  and  it 
should  act  promptly  in  the  matter,  and,  if  necessary,  cut  off  the 
gas  from  the  entire  street  rather  than  continue  to  expose  the 
nouses  to  such  dangers.  A  German  chemist,  Professor  Bunte, 
has  suggested  a  ready  method  for  testing  the  tightness  of  gas 
street-mains.  Small  holes  from  12  to  16  inches  deep  are  bored, 
at  intervals  of  6  to  10  feet  along  their  line,  and  in  each  opening 
an  iron  tube  0.5  inch  in  diameter  is  placed,  which  has  within  it 
a  glass  tube  containing  a  roll  of  test  paper.  This  paper  is  dipped 
into  a  solution  of  palladium  chloride,  and  any  trace  of  gas  escap- 
ing from  the  main  at  once  acts  upon  the  paper,  coloring  it  a 
slight  brown  or  even  black,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  leak. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  after,  say,  ten  minutes,  the  paper  remains 
white,  it  is  a  safe  indication  that  at  the  point  tested  there  is  no 
escape  of  gas.* 

*  Another  method  is  suggested  in  Hartenfels'  patent  gas-leak  indicator. 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  249 

To  the  distribution  system  belong  also  the  house  and  lamp 
services  and  the  gas  meter.  The  house  service  should  be  laid 
with  the  same  care  as  is  required  for  the  inside  gas-piping  system. 
The  tapping  with  the  main  should  be  done  carefully  with  a  good 
ratchet  brace  and  hard  steel  drills.  In  certain  soils,  it  is  advis- 
able to  protect  iron  sendee  pipes  against  corrosion  by  painting 
them. 

A  leak  which  shows  itself  in  the  cellar  at  the  point  where  the 
service  enters  should  be  at  once  repaired  by  notifying  the  com- 
pany to  whom  the  piping  belongs.  Breaks  in  services  to  street 
lamps  are  sometimes  indicated  by  the  fact  that  a  street  lamp 
suddenly  burns  very  dimly. 

The  consumers'  gas  meters,  which  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  house  service  and  the  house  pipes  for  gas,  should 
also  be  tight  and  all  connections  made  with  the  greatest  care. 
Connections  with  iron  pipes  and  fittings  are  preferable  to  those 
of  lead. 

Accidents  sometimes  occur  to  workmen  of  the  gas  company 
when  replacing  a  defective  gas  meter  or  cleaning  out  house 
sendees  that  have  become  stopped  up.  In  all  such  cases,  the 
greatest  care  should  be  observed  to  avoid  asphyxiation. 

Dangers  Incident  to  the  Gas  Piping  in  Houses. 

In  piping  houses  for  gas  it  is  always  well  to  bear  in  mind  the 
dangerous  nature  of  the  gas  to  be  carried  in  the  pipes.  Of 
whatever  kind  the  gas  may  be  with  which  the  house  is  to  be 
lighted,  whether  natural  gas,  coal  gas,  air  gas  or  acetylene  gas, 
the  piping  should  be  absolutely  tight  in  the  joints  and  the  tight- 
ness should  always  be  ascertained  by  carefully  testing  the  gas- 
piping  system  after  completion.  (For  a  description  of  how  to 
test  the  gas  piping,  see  Chapter  XI.)  It  has  been  pointed  out 
by  scientific  investigators,  that  even  slight  gas  leaks  in  houses, 
when  going  on  for  a  long  time,  will  have  an  ill  effect  upon  the 
health  of  the  inmates.  They  will  suffer  not  only  from  head- 
aches, vertigo,  and  nausea,  but  also  in  some  cases  from  sore 
throats.*  Quite  often  such  gas  leaks  and  their  effects  are  erro- 
neously attributed  to  "sewer  gas."  Larger  leaks  of  gas  are 
dangerous,  first,  by  reason  of  persons  becoming  asphyxiated, 
and  second,  because  the  gas  when  mixed  with  air  and  brought 
in  contact  with  a  flame  -will  cause  explosions  or  a  fire.  Many 

*See  Gerhard's  "Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting." 


250  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

accidents  are  annually  recorded  where  persons  have  searched  for 
a  gas  leak  with  an  open  flame,  and  even  mechanics,  who  should 
know  better,  at  times  risk  their  lives  by  this  bad  practice. 

In  laying  out  the  gas-piping  system  for  a  building,  it  is  there- 
fore obviously  of  the  utmost  importance  to  so  arrange  the  pipes, 
in  size  and  manner  of  distribution,  as  to  avoid  at  any  point  in 
the  system  the  possibility  of  a  sudden  reduction  in  the  gas 
pressure,  for,  where  this  happens,  a  flame  which  has  been  turned 
down  low  is  liable  to  go  out,  and  when  the  pressure  is  re-estab- 
lished death,  by  asphyxiation,  may  result  through  the  escape  of 
the  gas.  Although  this  matter  was  not  unknown,  it  has  been 
pointed  out,  for  the  first  time,  I  believe,  by  Mr.  Faxon,  an  arch- 
itect, of  Boston.  The  matter  will  be  referred  to  again  under  the 
heading  of  " Management  of  Gas."  (See  also  Chapter  V.) 

A  few  points  of  caution  may  be  useful:  First,  in  piping  a 
house,  always  keep  the  gas  pipes  away  from  bell  wires,  for  cases 
are  on  record  when  such  bell  wires  in  constant  contact  with  the 
gas  pipes  have  gradually  cut  the  pipe,  causing  a  hidden  leak  of 
gas  which  was  often  extremely  difficult  to  find.  Second,  gas 
pipes  should  always  be  kept  away  from  steam  and  hot-water 
pipes,  and  also  from  hot-air  flues,  smoke  pipes,  and  from  electric 
service  wires. 

Where  small  leaks  of  gas  in  the  pipes  of  a  house  are  suspected, 
a  very  simple  method  for  detecting  these  is  to  watch  the  small 
index  hand  of  the  gas  meter..  Wherever  this  moves,  when  no  gas 
is  burning  and  no  gas  is  used  in  the  house,  there  must  be  some- 
where a  gas  escape.  Sometimes  a  gas  leak  may  be  noticed  by  a 
rumbling  sound  in  the  gas  meter  when  all  the  burners  are  closed. 

Dangers  Incident  to  the  Gas  Fixtures. 

In  the  gas  fixtures,  where  gas  is  either  burned  for  illumination 
or  else  for  cooking  or  heating  purposes,  there  are  a  number  of 
points  which  require  serious  attention.  First,  there  is  the  joint 
where  the  fixture  is  attached  to  the  gas  piping  or  to  the  gas 
outlet.  Except  for  the  few  temporary  connections  by  means 
of  rubber  tubing,  this  joint  is  nearly  always  a  fixed  joint.  It, 
therefore,  should  be  made  with  the  same  care  as  any  other  joint 
in  the  pipe  system,  but  the  makers  of  gas  fixtures,  who  usually 
attach  the  latter,  are  very  often  guilty  of  carelessness  or  bad 
workmanship. 

Next  come   the  fixtures  themselves.      Of  whatever  material 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  251 

they  are  made,  the  tubing  through  which  gas  is  conveyed  to  the 
point  where  it  is  burnt,  should  be  absolutely  tight.  It  would 
be  well  if  all  the  gas  fixtures  were  tested  before  leaving  the 
factory,  for  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  gas  keys  are  seldom 
absolutely  tight,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  test  the  gas  fixtures  in 
a  house  after  they  are  once  connected. 

The  gas  keys,  which  govern  the  flow  of  gas,  are  very  often 
found  to  be  loose  in  the  joint  or  else  worn  out,  and  in  that  case  a 
constant,  though  small,  escape  of  gas  may  result.  Keys  which 
turn  too  hard  are  equally  bad,  as  accidents  may  happen  by 
reason  of  the  gas  not  being  entirely  shut  off.  Numerous  fixtures 
have  either  folding  or  extension  or  telescopic  joints.  All  such 
joints  constitute  places  where  an  escape  of  gas  may  occur. 
Particular  attention  should  be  called  to  the  danger  of  old-fash- 
ioned gas  fixtures  with  so-called  "all  around"  cocks,  that  is, 
having  keys  without  stop  pins.  The  writer  has  held  long  ago 
that  the  use  of  such  fixtures  should  be  prohibited  by  legislative 
act.  Where  the  keys  are  provided  with  pins,  these  are  often 
made  of  too  light  material  and  break  or  snap  off.  The  joints  of 
extension  fixtures  should  be  watched  with  particular  care.  So- 
called  water-joint  pendants  are  liable  to  have  the  water  evaporate, 
and  it  is  best  to  substitute  glycerine  for  the  water.  Very  often 
the  tubing  of  chandeliers  corrodes  or  splits  and  gas  leaks  result. 
Where  portable  table  lamps  are  used,  the  rubber  tubing  may 
become  worn  out  or  cracked,  and  permit  the  gas  to  escape. 

All  gas  keys  should  be  properly  greased  and  loose  keys  should 
be  tightened  to  avoid  the  slightest  smell  of  gas.  The  joint  where 
the  gas  burner  is  attached  to  the  fixture  should  also  be  made 
tight,  as  it  otherwise  may  leak  gas  when  the  latter  is  turned  on. 

Accidents  may  occur  from  all  the  causes  named.  In  the 
Massachusetts  statistics  of  deaths  from  asphyxiation,  a  few 
other  causes  are  pointed  out,  of  which  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  Combination  gas  and  electric  fixtures  in  which  the 
gas  key  may  be  turned  on,  being  mistaken  for  the  electric 
lamp  key.  The  use  of  the  so-called  independent  cocks  is  also 
somewhat  dangerous  when  the  two  keys  are  placed  together, 
one  of  them  controlling  the  lamp  and  the  other  a  connection  to  a 
gas  stove,  as  the  one  may  be  turned  open  by  accident  when  the 
other  is  closed.* 

*  See  "Accidents  with  Gas,"  by  William  Paul  Gerhard,  Amer.  Arch., 
Aug.  6, 1898. 


252  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Heating  and  cooking  fixtures  should  also  be  connected  with 
care  and  should  not  have  any  leaky  places.  Where  rubber  tubing 
is  used  for  temporary  connections,  accidents  may  occur  from  the 
tubing  slipping  off  the  joint  or  becoming  sufficiently  loose  to 
permit  an  escape  of  gas. 

Where  gas  pressure  regulators  are  used  at  the  meter  to  control 
the  gas  pressure,  they  should  be  carefully  examined  for  tightness, 
for  very  often  slight  leaks  are  found  in  such  appliances. 

Each  single  leak  may  be  ever  so  small,  yet  the  aggregate  of 
leaks  in  a  house  may  lead  to  a  serious  contamination  of  the  air 
and  to  bad  effects  on  the  health  of  the  occupants,  due  to  slow 
poisoning. 

Dangers  Incident  to  the  Use  and  Management  of  Gas. 

Numerous  accidents  occur  annually  in  the  use  of  gas  for 
lighting,  cooking,  or  heating,  through  either  carelessness  or 
ignorance.  The  largest  number  of  accidents,  probably,  occurs 
from  ignorant  persons  blowing  out  the  gas,  or  from  turning  it  off 
and  subsequently  turning  the  cock  on  sufficiently  for  the  gas  to 
escape  unnoticed.  This  is  particularly  liable  to  happen  in  hotels 
and  lodging  houses,  where  persons  from  remote  country  districts, 
or  emigrants,  who  have  never  used  gas  before,  take  rooms;  but 
it  also  happens  now  and  then  in  private  families,  in  the  bed- 
rooms of  servants,  not  acquainted  with  the  use  of  gas.  Fatal 
accidents  usually  occur  in  small  rooms  having  no  ventilation, 
while  the  occupants  are  asleep. 

Other  accidents  are  the  result  of  the  bad  practice  of  turning 
a  gas  flame  down  low,  particularly  in  bedrooms.  This  is  always 
ill-advised,  for  such  a  turned-down  flame  may  be  either  blown 
out  by  a  draft  of  air  from  an  open  window,  or  else  it  may  be 
extinguished  by  a  sudden  variation  or  reduction  in  the  pressure. 
When  this  happens  in  a  small  bedroom  without  ventilation 
there  is  great  danger  of  persons  becoming  asphyxiated,  par- 
ticularly so  if  water  gas  is  used.  Much  can  be  done  to  avert 
this  danger  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  gas  piping  in 
houses. 

Another  dangerous  custom  is  to  shut  off  the  gas  at  the  main 
service,  or  at  the  gas  meter  during  the  night,  and  numerous 
accidents,  some  of  them  fatal,  have  resulted  from  it.  It  is 
almost  equally  bad  to  turn  off  the  gas  at  the  meter  during  the 
day. 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  253 

Notwithstanding  the  universal  introduction  of  gas  lighting, 
there  are  still  many  persons  who  would  be  benefited  by 
receiving  plain  instructions  on  the  use  of  gas  in  the  household. 
Gas  companies  would  benefit  themselves  and  the  public  by 
paying  more  attention  to  this  matter. 

Among  the  statistics  already  quoted  may  be  found  numerous 
deaths  or  accidents  due  to  a  faulty  management  of  gas.  Among 
the  more  remote  causes  the  writer  finds  the  following  mentioned : 
In  one  of  two  adjoining  rooms  supplied  with  gas  from  one  so- 
called  prepayment  gas  meter,  a  man  retired  for  the  night  when 
the  gas  supply  from  the  meter  was  exhausted,  but  forgot  to  close 
his  gas  burner.  The  occupant  of  the  adjoining  room  came  home 
late  at  night,  dropped  a  coin  in  the  slot  of  the  gas  meter  and  got 
a  fresh  supply  of  gas,  which  meanwhile  also  escaped  in  the 
adjoining  room,  killing  the  occupant. 

The  danger  incident  to  the  use  of  automatic  or  quarter-in-the- 
slot  gas  meters  is  also  illustrated  by  the  following  recent 
occurrence  in  New  York  City,  which  caused  the  death  of  two 
victims : 

"  An  automatic  gas  meter  ran  out  in  an  apartment  after  the 
majority  of  the  household  had  gone  to  bed.  In  the  early  morn- 
ing hours  some  one  of  the  household,  after  rising,  put  a  quarter 
in  the  meter  and  the  gas  began  to  flow  through  the  gas  jet  in  a 
bedroom,  the  occupant  of  which  had  left  the  burner  open  when 
the  gas  went  out  the  night  previous.  Gas  filled  the  room,  and 
the  occupant  was  found  unconscious,  and  after  being  removed 
to  the  hospital,  died  after  several  hours.  A  lady,  occupying  an 
adjoining  bedroom,  was  also  overcome  by  the  gas,  and  likewise 
died  from  the  effects  of  gas  poisoning." 

Escapes  of  gas  and  explosions  have  also  happened  in  the  use 
of  gas  cooking  stoves,  where  the  boiling  water,  running  over  the 
vessel,  extinguished  the  flame.  It  has  already  been  mentioned 
that  the  so-called  independent  gas  connections,  with  two  keys, 
may  lead  to  accidents  by  the  wrong  one  being  turned  by  mistake. 

Where  the  gas  in  the  cellar  freezes  in  winter  time,  it  is  dangerous 
to  attempt  to  thaw  out  the  gas  meter  or  the  gas  service  with  a 
flame.  A  gas  meter  should  never  be  examined  with  a  burning 
light,  nor  should  any  tools  be  used  near  a  gas  meter  which  is 
known  to  be  leaky,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  flying  sparks. 


254  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Remedies  Suggested. 

According  to  the  official  statistics  of  the  Board  of  Gas  and 
Electric  Light  Commissioners  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts, 
105  gas  accidents  occurred  in  the  year  1887,  causing  60  deaths 
and  74  injuries.  In  the  year  1898,  101  accidents  occurred, 
causing  77  deaths  and  45  injuries.  While  some  deaths  were  due 
to  suicidal  intent,  the  majority  of  cases  were  accidents  which 
might  have  been  prevented  by  a  stricter  inspection  of  the  gas 
piping  and  fixtures. 

It  cannot  be  overlooked  that  the  danger  is  a  serious  one,  and 
one  that  is  sure  to  increase  as  the  use  of  carburetted  water 
gas  becomes  more  universal.  Leaks  of  coal  gas  produce  un- 
pleasant symptoms  and  sometimes  cause  loss  of  consciousness, 
but  an  exposure  to  the  more  dangerous  water  gas  would,  under 
similar  circumstances,  result  in  the  death  of  the  victim.  With- 
out a  desire  to  draw  comparisons  as  to  the  relative  dangers  from 
sewer  air  and  from  illuminating  gas  poisoning,  the  writer  has 
always  held  the  view  that  both  are  equally  preventable  by  proper 
supervision  of  buildings,  old  and  new. 

In  recent  years,  the  supervision  of  gas  piping  pnd  gas-fittings 
has  been  agitated  in  numerous  places,  among  others  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  in  Washington.  In  the  first-named 
city  this  agitation  has  resulted  in  the  enactment  of  laws  govern- 
ing gas  piping  and  the  inspection  of  such  work  in  all  new  build- 
ings. A  similar  law  was  introduced  years  ago  in  Albany,  but 
for  reasons  difficult  to  explain  the  bill  was  killed.  At  present, 
however,  the  gas  piping  of  all  new  buildings  in  New  York  City 
is  inspected  and  tested  before  use  by  the  municipal  building 
department. 

Among  the  safeguards  to  be  applied,  I  mention  the  following: 

First.  The  enactment  of  official  regulations  regarding  the 
arrangement  of  the  gas  pipes  in  buildings  and  the  provision  for 
official  municipal  inspection  and  for  testing  all  work  in  connec- 
tion with  it.  It  is  advisable  that  all  manufacturers  of  gas 
fixtures  should  test  their  output  at  the  factories. 

Second.  The  periodical  inspection  of  gas-lighting  fixtures  and 
other  gas  appliances  in  hotels,  lodging  houses,  and  tenements 
by  the  municipal  authorities.  Precautions  against  gas  asphyx- 
iations  are  particularly  necessary  in  the  case  of  cheap  hotels 
and  lodging  houses,  frequented  by  people  unacquainted  with  the 
use  of  gas. 


Dangers  to  the  Public  Health  255 

Third.  The  prohibiting  of  the  use  of  gas  in  all  sleeping  rooms 
without  proper  provision  for  ventilation,  and  in  bedrooms  of 
less  than  a  stated  number  of  cubic  feet  capacity.  The  danger 
of  exposure  to  escaping  gas  becomes  aggravated  by  sleeping 
in  very  small  bedrooms. 

Fourth.  The  use  of  so-called  automatic  burners  in  the  sleep- 
ing rooms  of  hotels  and  lodging  houses.  The  term  "automatic" 
in  this  connection  is  intended  to  designate  a  gas  burner  from 
which  gas  cannot  escape  without  becoming  immediately  ignited. 
Several  ingenious  so-called  "  self-lighting "  burners  have  been 
patented  within  a  year  or  two  and  are  now  placed  on  sale.  If 
a  person  should  blow  the  gas  out  where  these  burners  are  used 
the  gas  will  become  automatically  lighted  and  no  asphyxiation 
can  result. 

Fifth.  It  has  also  been  repeatedly  suggested  to  restrict  by 
law  the  amount  of  carbonic  oxide  in  gas  and  to  prohibit  the  dis- 
tribution of  any  gas  containing  more  than  a  stated  quantity  of 
this  poisonous  ingredient.  In  the  writer's  judgment,  it  will  be 
a  difficult  matter  to  enforce  such  a  statute,  and  managers  of  gas 
companies  may  surely  be  expected  to  oppose  any  such  measures, 
as  in  recent  years  they  found  it  to  their  advantage,  on  account 
of  lessened  cost  of  production,  to  manufacture  a  carburetted 
water  gas  instead  of  the  coal  gas. 

Under  all  circumstances,  diligent  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  use  of  gas  fixtures  and  gas  fittings.  This,  together  with  an 
official  supervision  of  the  gas  piping,  and  with  popular  instruc- 
tions disseminated  by  gas  companies  to  their  customers,  would 
accomplish  much  good  in  preventing  fatal  accidents  in  the 
future. 


CHAPTER  XXV.  ^ 

DANGERS  OF  GAS  LEAKAGE  (continued). 

IN  the  preceding  two  chapters  the  author  has  given  his  own 
views  and  observations  on  the  dangers  from  gas  leakage.  The 
subject  has  become  one  of  vast  importance,  and  may  be  viewed 
from  two  different  points,  namely: 

1.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  sanitarian,  who  looks  upon  it 
chiefly  as  a  serious  danger  to  health  and  life. 

2.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  underwriter,  who  sees  in 
the  frequent  gas  escapes  and  leaks  dangers  to  property  and  risks 
of  fire. 

The  following  quotations,  drawn  from  the  various  sources 
indicated,  are  given  in  order  to  emphasize  the  absolute  necessity 
of  taking  efficient  steps  to  eradicate  the  evil,  or  at  least  to  reduce 
it  to  a  minimum.  I  should,  perhaps,  point  out  that  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  report  quoted  all  others  appeared  after  my 
own  paper  on  the  subject  was  prepared. 

From  a  pamphlet  published  in  September,  1897,  by  the  City 
Club,  of  New  York,  I  quote  the  following  sentences : 

"  The  enormous  leakage  loss  of  gas  from  mains  is  not  only  a  public 
nuisance ;  it  is  in  a  high  degree  dangerous  to  life  and  property.  .  .  .  Explo- 
sions in  sewers,  subways,  and  in  manholes,  of  gas  which  has  leaked  from 
the  gas  mains  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  entailing  much  public  incon- 
venience and  great  expense  for  repairs.  .  .  .  Notwithstanding  the  repairs 
constantly  in  progress,  the  leakage  of  gas  from  street  mains  and  defective 
service  connections  is  enormous.  .  .  .  Experiments  should  be  undertaken 
to  determine  whether  some  reasonable  means  of  abating  this  nuisance, 
with  all  its  attendant  evils,  is  not  available.  The  danger  from  these 
leaks  is  materially  enhanced  by  the  increase  in  the  area  of  asphalt  pave- 
ments. 

"  The  occurrence  of  a  number  of  fires  and  explosions,  studied  in  the  light 
of  these  facts,  may  be  assumed  to  be  due  to  the  gas  leakage,  and  warrants 
the  belief  that  this  important  subject  should  be  further  investigated. " 

The  Committee  on  Lighting  and  Heating  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  issued  a  Report  dated  December 

256 


Dangers  of  Gas  Leakage  257 

28,  1899,  on  "The  Fire  Risk  of  Gas  Main  Leakage  under  Imper- 
vious Street  Mains/'  from  which  the  following  is  quoted: 

"  From  the  insurance  standpoint,  gas  leakage  from  mains  in  asphalted 
or  other  impervious  street  pavements  is  important,  as  it  increases  the 
fire  risk  of  buildings  fronting  on  such  streets. 

"  The  leakage  from  gas  mains,  service  connections,  and  service  pipes  is 
much  greater  than  is  generally  known.  It  is  asserted  on  good  authority 
that  the  normal  leakage  of  6-inch  gas  mains  averages  225,000  cubic  feet 
per  mile  per  annum;  that  of  12-inch  gas  mains  averages  450,000  cubic 
feet. 

"  From  reports  received  from  fifteen  American  gas  companies,  large  and 
small,  the  leakage  appears  to  be  vastly  greater,  in  some  instances  nearly 
three  times  as  much  as  the  above  figures  indicate. 

"  In  Massachusetts  the  leakage  is  somewhat  smaller,  viz.,  202,475  cubic 
feet  for  an  average  diameter  of  6  inches. 

"  This  is  a  matter  of  grave  concern  to  the  fire  underwriters.  Leakage 
which  formerly  escaped  gradually  upwards,  now  follows  the  paths  of 
least  resistance,  when  street  surfaces  are  practically  air-tight ;  it  follows 
spaces  around  gas  services,  escaping  into  coal  cellars  and  vaults,  while 
some  reaches  either  the  sewers  or  the  subways." 

In  the  Scientific  American  of  1904,  I  find  the  following: 

"  Whereas  water  leakage  is  chiefly  a  question  of  municipal  extrava- 
gance, gas-main  leakage  is  a  much  more  serious  matter,  especially  when 
it  occurs  under  asphalt  or  other  practically  gas-tight  pavements.  Of 
the  gas  thus  lost,  some  is  held  in  the  superficial  earth  strata  and  creates 
the  familiar  nuisance  in  connection  with  street  excavations.  Some  leaks 
into  subways  and  sewers,  and  is  occasionally  heard  from  in  explosions 
which  hurl  manhole  covers  high  into  the  air  and  rip  up  sections  of  streets. 
(Such  explosions  are  usually  recorded  by  the  reporters  as  '  sewer  gas ' 
explosions.) 

"  Most  of  the  gas  leakage,  however,  follows  along  the  mains  and  works 
its  way  into  cellars  and  coal  vaults  following  the  soft  and  pervious  filling 
around  gas  and  water  services.  This  constitutes  a  very  serious  menace 
to  life  and  property. 

"  The  case  of  the  Hotel  Windsor  Fire  in  New  York  a  few  years  ago  is 
now  assumed  to  have  been  due  to  an  escape  of  gas,  and  the  cause 
of  many  mysterious  and  costly  fires  may  be  looked  for  in  the  same 
direction. 

"  Can  we  afford  to  put  down  impervious  pavements  until  we  learn  how 
to  minimize  gas-main  leakage? 

"  Gas  leaks  are  caused  largely  by  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipes. 
The  total  movement  due  to  the  range  of  summer  and  winter  temperatures 


258  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

exerts  such  power  that  the  strongest  materials  cannot  resist  it,  those 
irresistible  forces  therefore  cannot  be  disregarded. 

"  Wrought-iron  pipes  with  steam-tight  screw  joints  have  been  tried  in 
place  of  cast-iron  pipe  with  caulked  joints.  But  even  with  wrought- 
iron  pipes  the  threads  are  stripped,  the  joints  are  pulled  apart,  and  rigid 
connections  are  broken. 

"  Gas  mains  are  also  subject  to  the  jar  of  the  surface  traffic,  and  to 
unequal  settlement ;  excavations  near  them  increase  the  leakage. 

"  In  underground  mains,  rigidity  is  fatal  to  tightness  and  durability, 
and  elasticity  as  well  as  flexibility  should  be  secured. 

"  The  first  cost  of  mains  per  unit  of  length  is  of  vastly  less  consequence 
than  freedom  from  leakage  and  repairs." 

An  editorial  in  The  Metal  Worker  of  1904,  on  "  Tightness  in 
Gas  Mains,"  contains  the  following  sentence: 

"  It  is  said  that  possibly  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the  gas  generated  at 
the  works  is  lost  before  the  consumer  is  reached.  The  consumer  must 
necessarily  pay  a  price  sufficiently  high  to  cover  the  loss.  .  .  .  The  public 
utility  corporation  supplying  gas  should  be  forced  to  exercise  the  utmost 
care  in  laying  its  system  of  mains.  .  .  .  Possibly,  when  the  gas  company 
is  made  to  feel  that  there  is  talk  of  restricting  the  retail  price  of  gas,  it 
will  take  measures  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  losses  which  now  seem  to 
be  regarded  as  unavoidable.  From  the  standpoint  of  economizing  .  .  . 
and  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitation,  in  preventing  the  dissemination 
of  a  poisonous  gas,  the  question  of  tightness  in  gas  mains  is  one  of  no 
little  importance. " 

In  Insurance  Engineering,  a  well-informed  monthly  magazine 
of  New  York  City,  occurs  the  following : 

"  Who  can  tell  how  many  fires,  in  New  York  and  other  cities,  whose  ori- 
gins are  reported  as  '  unknown/  are  really  due  to  gas  leakage?  From  one 
to  two  hundred  recorded  gas  fires  occur  in  New  York  City  alone  each  year. 
It  is  an  alarming  question  of  the  first  magnitude. 

"  Gas-saturated  buildings  and  streets  constitute  a  menace  of  the  most 
dangerous  description.  .  .  .  The  perils  against  which  people  require 
insurance  are  largely  of  their  own  making,  or  exist  on  account  of  their 
ignorance  or  tolerance.  .  .  .  The  gas-leakage  peril,  with  its  retinue  of 
variegated  calamities,  can  be  regulated  and  reduced,  if  not  eliminated 
wholly." 

The  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  of  March  4,  1899,  brought 
the  following  article,  headed  "The  Increasing  Dangers  of  Illu- 
minating Gas." 

"  The  occurrence,  only  a  few  days  apart,  of  three  instances  of  asphyxia- 
tion in  this  city  by  the  accidental  escape  of  illuminating  gas  should  direct 


Dangers  of  Gas  Leakage  259 

public  attention  to  the  dangerous  character  of  the  illuminant.  In  the 
instances  alluded  to  no  less  than  sixteen  persons  were  overcome  and  five 
deaths  resulted.  In  this  number  are  not  included  cases  of  attempted  or 
successful  suicide,  by  this  agent,  of  which  also  several  have  been  reported. 

"  A  point  of  danger,  concerning  which  knowledge  is  not  general,  is  the 
fact  that,  since  the  lease  of  the  Philadelphia  Gas  Works,  by  the  United 
Gas  Improvement  Company,  an  increasing  quantity  of  water  gas  is  being 
mixed  with  the  coal  gas,  which  many  suppose  constitutes  the  sole  illumi- 
nating agent  dispensed.  Water  gas  is  distinctly  a  more  lethal  agent 
than  the  ordinary  illuminating  gas,  possesses  no  noticeable  pungent  odor, 
is  particularly  penetrative,  and  not  only  acts  much  more  rapidly  in  pro- 
ducing asphyxiation,  but  produces  effects  far  more  difficult  to  overcome 
than  does  coal  gas.  Even  when  resuscitation  and  apparent  recovery  is 
made,  the  action  of  water  gas  upon  the  blood  is  such  that  an  impaired 
state  of  health,  temporary  or  permanent,  according  to  the  degree  of 
asphyxiation,  must  inevitably  result. 

"  For  the  protection  of  the  public,  this  important  matter  of  the  con- 
stant supply  of  so  dangerous  an  agent  should  be  hedged  about  with  more 
safeguards  than  at  present  exist.  Among  the  more  obvious  protective 
measures  that  should  be  recommended  is  the  requiring  of  all  companies 
manufacturing  and  selling  illuminating  gas,  to  give  public  notice  of  the 
use  of  any  kind  of  water  gas,  such  statement,  with  a  caution  as  to  the 
danger  of  the  illuminant,  forming  part  of  every  bill  for  service  sent  out 
by  the  company.  In  addition,  municipal  legislation  should  regulate  the 
proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  f  in  the  gas  supplied,  at  least  in  the  resident 
sections  during  what  may  be  called  the  '  sleeping  hours/  limiting  such 
proportion  to  about  12  per  cent.  The  character  of  the  gas  burners  and 
fittings  and  their  testing  would  also  seem  appropriate  matters  for  regu- 
lation by  the  city  government.  Observance  of  such  laws  could  be 
enforced  by  appropriate  penalties.  The  concomitant  possibility  of  civil 
suits  for  damages,  in  the  event  of  death  or  injury,  resulting  from  violation 
by  the  gas  companies  of  any  of  the  provisions  having  public  safety  in 
view,  would  also,  doubtless,  have  effect  in  producing  some  degree  of  caution 
in  the  observance  of  legal  points  of  liability. 

"The  gas  companies  seem  to  have  three  malevolent  aims:  1.  To 
ruin  our  eyes  by  gas  which  does  not  illumine.  2.  To  ruin  our  bank 
accounts  by  compelling  us  to  burn  great  quantities  of  gas,  in  the  hope  of 
lighting  our  rooms.  3.  To  ruin  our  health  by  vitiation  of  our  atmos- 
phere. If  we  are  rebellious,  they  propose  actual  death  by  asphyxiation. 

"Note.  —  In  the  above  editorial  a  slip  of  the  pen  made  us  say,  '  carbon 
dioxide  '  instead  of  '  carbon  monoxide/  The  latter  is  the  gas  present 
in  water  gas;  it  is  the  more  dangerous  of  the  two  forms  because  it  has 
the  greater  combining  power  with  oxygen ;  hence  the  statement  in  the 

t  See  explanation  in  the  NOTE. 


260  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Press,  by  a  gas  official,  apparently  in  reply  to  the  editorial,  that  in  the 
illuminating  gas  of  this  city  far  less  than  12  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide  is 
used  while  there  is  a  larger  percentage  of  carbon  monoxide,  is  most  appli- 
cable to  the  contention  by  this  Journal  that  cautions  concerning  the 
dangerous  character  of  the  illuminant  should  form  part  of  the  gas  com- 
pany's service.  The  statement  in  the  same  interview,  that  the  two  gases 
are  '  almost  equally  fatal/  is  fallacious.  Carbon  monoxide  is  not  only 
more  surely  fatal,  but  its  after-effects,  particularly  upon  the  oxygenating 
power  of  the  red  corpuscles,  are  far  more  lasting,  a  condition  of  per- 
manently impaired  health  usually  resulting  when  resuscitation  from  the 
immediate  severe  effects  of  the  gas  is  had.  Since  the  last  writing  two 
more  deaths  from  this  cause  have  been  reported.  Is  it  not  time  some 
step  should  be  taken?  " 

Commenting  on  this  article,  the  New  York  Tribune  wrote: 

"  For  the  protection  of  the  public  against  the  dangers  of  illuminating 
gas,  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  in  a  vigorous  editorial,  urges  the 
absolute  necessity  of  more  safeguards  than  at  present  exist.  Among 
the  more  obvious  measures,  with  this  end  in  view,  it  recommends  requiring 
all  companies  manufacturing  and  selling  such  gas  invariably  to  give 
public  notice  of  the  use  of  any  kind  of  water  gas,  such  statement,  with 
an  explicit  caution  as  to  the  danger  of  the  illuminant,  .forming  part  of 
every  bill  for  service  sent  out  by  the  company.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
Journal  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  municipal  regulation,  of  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  monoxide  in  the  gas  supplied,  at  least  in  the  resident 
districts,  during  what  may  be  called  the  '  sleeping  hours/  limiting  such 
proportion  to  about  12  per  cent.  Nor  should  the  character  of  the 
gas  burners  and  fittings  be  neglected  in  such  supervision.  That  such 
regulations  are  of  immediate  importance  is  evident." 

Again,  we  find  the  subject  mentioned  in  The  American  Archi- 
tect ol  July  26,  1902: 

"  An  interesting  discussion  on  gas  leakage  and  its  possible  effect  upon 
health  was  held  at  a- recent  meeting  of  the  New  York  County  Medical 
Society.  Annually  in  the  large  cities  the  gas  companies  expect  to  have 
a  leakage  of  over  one  thousand  millions  of  cubic  feet  of  gas.  In  recent 
years  this  has  become  much  more  dangerous  in  its  possible  effects  than 
in  the  early  days  of  gas  lighting  when  ordinary  coal  gas  was  employed. 
The  gas  produced  in  closed  retorts  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal 
contained  only  a  very  small  amount  of  the  most  poisonous  ingredients, 
the  carbon  monoxide,  or  blue  gas.  Since  water  gas  has  come  to  be  em- 
ployed almost  exclusively  for  illuminating  purposes  the  percentage  of 
carbon  monoxide  present  in  illuminating  gas  is  over  30  per  cent.  There 
has  been  a  suggestion  in  recent  years  that  pure  water  gas  should  be 
employed  in  cities  for  heating  purposes.  In  order  to  be  useful  for  illumi- 


Dangers  of  Gas  Leakage  261 

nation,  water  gas  must  be  carburetted  —  that  is,  saturated  with  cer- 
tain naphtha  derivatives.  It  is  these  substances  which  give  the  water  gas, 
as  made  at  present,  its  characteristic  penetrating  odor.  They  also  some- 
what dilute  the  more  poisonous  gases  which  are  present.  The  gas  expert 
who  discussed  the  subject  at  the  meeting  referred  to  said  that  '  if  pure 
water  gas  was  to  be  supplied  for  heating  purposes,  the  only  safe  place  to 
live  in  New  York  City  would  be  outside  of  it/  Present  conditions  in 
our  large  cities  add  to  the  dangers  of  gas  leakage.  Our  pavements, 
especially  in  quiet  residence  streets,  are  usually  asphalt,  and  are  thor- 
oughly impermeable.  Gas  that  escapes  from  the  mains  is  confined 
beneath  the  streets  until  it  finds  its  way  into  the  houses  or  into  the  sewers. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  severe  anaemias  are  becoming  more  frequent  in 
city  life.  Dr.  Lloyd  pointed  out  at  this  same  meeting  that  some  of  these 
anaemic  conditions,  associated  with  febrile  temperature,  malaise,  and 
headache,  are  traceable  almost  directly  to  sewer  gas.  As  it  is  well  known 
that  ordinary  sewer  gas  does  not  affect  the  health  of  workmen  who  are 
many  hours  each  day  engaged  in  the  sewers,  it  would  seem  that  only 
when  large  amounts  of  carbon  monoxide  find  their  way  into  the  sewers, 
and  thence  into  the  houses,  for  the  gas  is  highly  diffusible,  that  so-called 
sewer  gas  takes  on  such  pathogenetic  influence."  (From  American 
Medicine.) 

Finally,  I  quote  from  Tfie  Metal  Worker  these  sentences : 

"  The  leakage  of  gas  in  dwelling  houses  and  other  buildings  is  a  source 
not  only  of  annoyance,  but  frequently  of  disaster.  The  experience  of 
Pittsburg  with  leaky  natural-gas  pipes  and  burners  has  been  especially 
unfortunate  and  has  led  to  the  utmost  precautions  being  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  gas  from  its  proper  channels.  In  the  case  of  natural 
gas,  however,  the  danger  is  very  much  greater  than  with  the  ordinary 
illuminating  or  coal  gas,  which  possesses  a  decided  odor  that  permits  of 
its  presence  being  readily  discovered.  The  first  intimation  that  natural 
gas  gives  of  its  escape  is  quite  likely. to  be  an  explosion. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  coal  gas  has  so  marked  a  smell  that  the 
average  nose  will  quickly  detect  it  and  if  properly  directed  trace  it  to  its 
point  of  escape,  there  appear  to  be  many  who  seem  to  think  they  can  see 
the  gas  more  distinctly  than  they  can  smell  it,  and,  therefore,  whenever 
a  gas  leak  occurs  they  go  hunting  for  it  with  a  light.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  this  method  is  apt  to  be  successful  so  far  as  revealing  the 
presence  of  gas  is  concerned,  but,  unfortunately  for  the  investigator  as 
as  well  as  the  house  in  which  the  gas  is  escaping,  an  explosion,  sometimes 
little  and  sometimes  great,  usually  precedes  the  finding  of  the  leak.  It 
is  so  natural  to  pick  up  a  light  when  looking  for  anything,  never  mind 
what  it  may  be,  that  the  danger  of  doing  so  in  the  case  of  escaping  gas 
when  the  point  of  leakage  is  the  object  of  search  is  too  frequently  missed 
sight  of  until  the  explosion  calls  it  to  mind.  The  first  thing  to  do  when 


262  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

a  strong  smell  of  gas  is  noticed  in  a  house  is  to  extinguish  all  the  lights, 
and  if  possible  intrust  the  search  to  some  one  who  has  had  experience  in 
the  matter  and  knows  what  is  best  to  be  done.  This  advice,  of  course, 
should  not  be  followed  strictly  when  the  gas  is  only  smelt  in  one  room, 
for  then  a  little  common  sense  applied  to  a  search  will  often  discover  a 
gas  burner  turned  on  or  something  out  of  order  that  can  be  easily  set  to 
rights". 

A  writer  in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Boston  Journal  of  Commerce 
gives  some  valuable  suggestions  on  gas  leaks,  their  repair  and 
detection,  from  which  we  quote  as  follows: 

"  A  leak  may  be  occasioned  from  a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  a  fracture 
in  the  pipe  from  imperfect  welding,  from  corrosion,  bad  fitting  couplings, 
sprung  joints  in  the  gas  meter  caused  by  wrenching  and  twisting  in 
attaching  a  regulating  device  by  an  amateur  '  wrench  fiend/  a  leaky 
dome  or  gas-holder  in  a  regulator  attached  to  the  meter,  etc.  When  a 
leak  is  discovered,  if  in  the  pipe  or  couplings,  it  can  be  temporarily  stopped, 
until  a  plumber's  service  can  be  obtained,  by  covering  or  filling  the 
aperture  with  white  or  red  lead,  or  with  sealing  wax  or  beeswax,  and, 
as  a  last  resort,  a  cloth  can  be  saturated  with  molasses  or  any  sticky  sub- 
stance and  wound  about  the  leak.  The  locality  of  a  leak  may  be  deter- 
mined at  times  by  taking  a  sponge  and  saturating  it  with  a  solution  of 
strong  soapsuds  and  applying  it  to  pipe,  couplings,  etc.,  upon  which  it 
will  form  a  thin  film  which  the  escaping  gas  will  blow  up  into  a  soap- 
bubble.  A  leak  may  also  be  determined  by  passing  the  hand,  if  warm, 
over  the  pipe,  as  the  gas,  being  of  a  cold  nature,  produces  a  sensation  of 
chilliness  when  coming  in  contact  with  a  warm  hand.  The  writer  then 
refers  to  the  trouble  occasioned  by  leaks  between  ceilings  which  are  not 
readily  located,  and  when  found  are  not  easily  reached.  The  danger 
of  investigating  with  a  flame  is  illustrated  by  a  case  that  actually  hap- 
pened where  a  man  looking  for  a  leak  mounted  on  a  step-ladder,  and 
against  the  advice  of  others,  proceeded  to  light  a  match  in  the  hope  of 
setting  fire  to  the  gas  where  it  escaped  from  the  pipe,  and  thus  locating 
the  source  of  the  trouble.  The  result,  as  expected,  was  an  explosion, 
and  the  writer  closes  with  the  wise  remark:  '  Like  many  another  fool, 
he  did  not  believe  it  was  loaded  until  the  mischief  was  done/  Mixed 
within  an  iron  cylinder  and  exploded  with  a  flame,  illuminating  gas  and 
air  are  the  source  of  power  in  a  gas  engine,  and  if  when  used  in  such  small 
quantities  they  have  to  be  confined  in  an  iron  chamber  to  prevent  damage, 
it  is  little  wonder  that  a  room,  full,  not  to  say  a  house  full,  of  the  mix- 
ture when  exploded,  should  do  considerable  harm." 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

HISTORICAL   NOTES   ON   THE   DEVELOPMENT   AND   PROGRESS 
OF   THE   GAS   INDUSTRY. 

IN  the  following  I  shall  not  attempt  to  give  a  complete  history 
of  the  gas-lighting  industry.  Those  who  are  interested  will  find 
ample  material  of  this  character  in  the  bibliography  on  gas 
lighting  following  this  chapter.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  sketch 
of  the  development  of  gas  lighting  in  Greater  New  York,  with 
brief  notes  interposed  relating  to  other  cities. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Dutch  settlements  of  New  Amster- 
dam and  Breuckelen,  as  New  York  and  Brooklyn  were  then 
called,  the  "burghers"  or  citizens,  who  went  about  the  streets 
after  dark,  carried  their  own  lanterns  with  them.  Later  in  the 
history  of  both  cities,  the  lighting  of  the  streets  was  made  a 
duty  of  the  citizens.  In  1697,  the  first  street-lighting  ordinance 
was  passed  in  New  York,  which  ordained  by  decree  of  the 
Corporation  that  "every  7  householders  should  unite  to  pay  the 
expense  of  burning  a  candle  in  a  lantern,  suspended  on  a  pole 
from  the  window  of  every  seventh  house  on  nights  when  there 
was  no  moon. " 

In  New  York  City,  public  street  lampposts  of  wood  were  first 
erected  and  maintained,  at  the  expense  of  the  city,  in  the  year 
1762;  these  posts  carried  lamps  which  burned  oil,  and  oil  lamps 
were  continued  in  use  up  to  the  year  1823,  when  gas  lighting 
was  first  introduced.  "The  street  oil  lamps  of  New  York  were 
tended  by  a  regular  force  of  lamp  lighters  who  went  about  every 
morning  with  a  can  of  oil,  scissors,  and  a  supply  of  wicks,  and 
carried  a  small  ladder,  mounted  on  which  they  blew  out  and 
trimmed  the  lamps  for  the  next  night's  service.  At  dusk  the 
same  perambulation  occurred  when  the  lamps  were  lit  by  means 
of  torches. "  (John  T.  Doyle,  "  A  Boyhood  in  old  New  York.") 

Contrasting  the  present  manner  of  lighting  street  gas  lamps 
with  the  former  primitive  methods,  the  late  Mr.  Charles  H. 
Haswell,  C.E.,  in  his  "  Reminiscences  of  an  Octogenarian,"  states 
that  "  the  lighting  of  the  oil  lamps  involved  the  use  of  a  ladder,  a 


264  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

vessel  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  a  lantern,  and  a  torch,  and  if  by 
the  severity  of  the  weather  .the  torch  was  extinguished,  the 
relighting  of  it,  before  friction  or  "locofoco"  matches  were 
known,  was  a  dilatory  matter. 

In  Brooklyn,  now  a  borough,  and  once  a  sister  city  of  New 
York,  it  is  related,  that  owing  to  the  increase  of  vice  and  crime 
on  the  streets  at  night,  householders  were  recommended,  in 
1800,  "  to  put  candles  in  their  front  windows  on  dark  nights 
as  a  convenience  to  those  having  to  be  upon  the  streets,  and  that 
was  the  genesis  of  street-lighting  in  Brooklyn/'  as  related  in 
the  Brooklyn  Eagle  "  History  of  the  City."  In  1820,  the  streets 
of  Brooklyn  were  for  the  first  time  lit  up  by  means  of  street  posts 
carrying  oil  lamps. 

The  lighting  of  the  interiors  of  houses,  stores,  theaters,  and 
churches  was  accomplished,  prior  to  the*  ad  vent  of  gas  lighting, 
by  means  of  both  oil  lamps  and  candles,  the  candles  being  made 
of  spermaceti  or  tallow. 

"  It  was  so  different  and  attended  with  so  many  difficulties 
and  inconveniences,  compared  with  the  facilities  we  now  avail 
ourselves  of,  that  it  is  worthy  of  record.  The  instruments  of 
illumination  were  oil  lamps  and  spermaceti  or  tallow  candles. 
The  lamps  required  attention  to  trimming  of  their  wicks  and  to 
guard  them  from  smoking,  and  the  candles  required  repeated 
" snuffing"  and  would  occasionally  run  or  drip,  as  it  was  termed, 
frequently  involving  damage  thereby,  as  in  ballrooms,  dancing 
parties  in  dwellings,  etc.,  as  such  places  were  illuminated  by 
chandeliers  with  a  great  number  of  candles  thereon,  some  one  or 
more  of  which  would  drip,  and  fortunate  were  the  parties  who 
did  not  receive  drops  of  spermaceti  upon  their  dresses."  (Chas. 
H.  Haswell,  "  Reminiscenses  of  an  Octogenarian.") 

About  the  facilities  of  procuring  a  light  at  that  period  in  the 
history  of  the  two  cities,  when  phosphor  matches  were  as  yet 
unknown,  the  same  author  relates  the  following:  "  The  question 
has  frequently  been  put,  how  we  put  up  with  such  inconvenient 
methods?  The  only  reliable  artificial  method  was  that  of  the 
construction  of  a  tinder  box,  filled  with  tinder  of  well-scorched 
rags,  a  flint  and  a  suitable  piece  of  steel;  or  by  the  rapid  opera- 
tion of  a  steel  wheel  rotated  by  drawing  a  long  cord  previously 
wound  around  its  axis;  to  the  face  of  this  was  applied  a  flint, 
the  sparks  elicited  by  it  falling  upon  the  tinder,  to  which,  when 
ignited,  a  sulphur  or  bituminous  match,  as  it  was  termed,  was 


Development  and  Progress  265 

applied  and  lighted.  French  phosphoric  matches  carried  in  a 
case  with  a  vial  of  a  phosphoric  mixture  and  matches  were 
altogether  unreliable."  Owing  to  the  difficulties  involved  in 
these  inconvenient  methods,  it  became  customary  to  keep  tapers 
floating  in  oil  lighted  in  bedrooms,  sickrooms,  in  the  city  fire- 
engine  houses,  and  other  places  where  light  might  be  quickly 
wanted  at  night  time.  Later  on  (about  1830),  a  brimstone 
match  was  introduced  and  soon  became  universally  used. 

Gas  lighting  was  introduced  in  England  in  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  A  London  theater  is  said  to  have 
been  lighted  by  gas  in  1803;  in  1807  Pall  Mall  was  lighted  by  gas 
lamps,  and  street  lamps,  placed  on  the  Westminster  Bridge,  were 
lit  by  gas  in  1813.  In  1823,  twenty-three  cities  in  England 
had  gas  illumination. 

Paris  adopted  gas  lighting  in  1816,  Vienna  in  1818,  Berlin  in 
1826,  Dresden  in  1828.  In  1850,  twenty-six  German  cities  had 
introduced  gas  lighting. 

Some  early  experiments  with  gas  were  made  in  New  York 
in  City  Hall  Park  in  1812,  and  continued  the  next  years,  while 
Baltimore  had  some  gas  light  in  1807,  and  Philadelphia  in  1807. 
New  York  City  was  the  third  city  in  the  United  States  to  intro- 
duce gas  lighting  more  generally,  Baltimore  having  adopted  gas  in 
1816  and  Boston  in  1820.  The  first  steps  to  make  use  of  the  new 
method  of  illumination  were  taken  in  New  York  in  1823  and 
in  Brooklyn  in  1825.  The  city  of  Cincinnati  adopted  gas  lighting 
in  1841  and  New  Orleans  in  1835.  In  other  countries,  the 
use  of  gas  did  not  begin  until  after  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century.  Thus  in  Japan,  Yokohama,  in  1868,  was  the  first  city 
to  use  gas  lighting. 


In  1823  the  New  York  Gas  Light  Company  was  incorporated 
with  a  capital'  of  $100,000  and  its  first  president  was  Mr.  Samuel 
Leggett.  The  company  was  given  the  exclusive  privilege,  for 
thirty  years,  of  laying  gas  pipes  in  the  streets  in  that  part  of  the 
city  lying  south  of  Grand  Street. 

In  September,  1823,  some  gas  mains  were  laid  in  the  principal 
streets,  and  in  the  same  month  the  president  of  the  gas  company 
gave  a  reception  in  commemoration  of  the  event,  and  his  house 
at  No.  7  Cherry  Street,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  New  York 
residence  in  which  illuminating  gas  was  introduced.  In  1825 


266  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

gas  mains  were  laid  in  Broadway  from  the  Battery  to  Canal 
Street,  consisting  like  the  water  mains  of  wooden  bored  logs, 
tapered  at  the  ends. 

The  first  gas  made  by  this  company  was  distilled  from  resin, 
which  was  at  that  time  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  the 
South.  Coal,  although  known  before  this,  time,  was  not  much 
in  use  for  domestic  purposes,  and  the  heating  of  dwellings,  stores, 
and  factories  was  usually  accomplished  by  means  of  wooden 
logs;  wood  was  also  the  fuel  used  in  the  kitchen  stove.  Coal  was 
at  that  time  being  imported  from  Liverpool  and  Newcastle, 
and  was  accordingly  very  expensive.  The  American  anthracite 
coal  was  used  in  the  districts  where  it  was  mined,  and  though 
some  of  the  coal  was  shipped  to  the  Eastern  States  by  way  of  the 
canals,  it  was  only  after  the  advent  of  the  railroads  that  coal  was 
transported  in  large  quantities  and  became  cheaper  in  price. 

Between  the  years  1825  and  1830,  illuminating  gas  came  more 
and  more  into  general  use.  In  1827  the  former  wooden  lamp- 
posts were  replaced  by  cast-iron  lamps,  and  street  gas-lamps 
were  first  lit  in  the  month  of  June,  1827.  In  as  late  a  period  in 
the  history  of  New  York  as  1858  or  1859,  the  street  gas-lamps, 
which  were  then  rather  far  apart,  were  not  required  to  be  lighted 
on  moonlight  nights,  and  as  a  result,  when  the  calendar  indicated 
moonlight,  there  was  often  no  light  in  the  streets  although  the 
sky  was  cloudy,  overcast,  and  dark.  When  the  complaints  from 
citizens  about  this  became  too  loud,  it  was  changed  to  the 
present  practice. 

It  may  also  be  of  historical  interest  to  mention  that  gas 
fixtures,  gasoliers,  and  even  the  gas  burners  were  formerly 
imported  from  England.  On  October  23,  1826,  the  New  York 
Theater,  afterward  known  as  the  Bowery  Theater,  was  opened 
and  was  the  first  theater  building  in  New  York  City  lighted  by 
gas.  The  price  charged  at  that  time  for  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas 
was  ten  dollars,  which  has  gradually  dropped  to  the  present  price 
of  eighty  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  this  price  being  fixed  by 
Act  of  Legislature. 

In  1830  the  second  gas  company,  viz.,  the  Manhattan  Gas 
Light  Company,  was  incorporated  with  a  capital  of  $500,000,  and 
was  given  the  privilege  of  supplying  the  territory  of  the  city 
lying  north  of  Grand  Street.  Thus  Grand  Street  formed  the 
boundary  line  between  the  two  gas  companies  then  doing  business 
in  the  city.  The  Manhattan  Gas  Company  began  the  manufac- 


Development  and  Progress  267 

ture  of  gas  from  coal.  The  price  of  gas  at  this  time  dropped 
to  $7.00  per  1000  cubic  feet. 

While  street  illumination  with  gas  lamps  was  regarded  as  a 
great  improvement,  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  gas  in  houses 
was  rather  slow  in  the  first  years.  It  is  stated  that,  not  unlike 
the  experiences  in  London,  many  householders  and  landlords  of 
New  York  protested  at  first  against  the  introduction  of  gas 
lighting  into  dwellings,  for  fear  of  explosions,  and  continued  to 
use  oil  lamps  and  wax  candles  by  preference. 

The  New  York  and  the  Manhattan  Gas  Light  Companies  were 
the  two  original  companies  in  Manhattan  Island.  Since  their 
incorporation,  a  large  number  of  other  companies  have  been 
started,  some  of  which  have  again  become  absorbed  by  the 
consolidation  of  several  companies,  so  that  their  original  name 
has  disappeared. 

The  third  company  in  New  York  was  the  Metropolitan  Gas 
Company,  organized  in  1853,  which  also  began  manufacturing 
coal  gas.  A  keen  competition  was  carried  on  for  years  between 
the  Manhattan  and  the  Metropolitan  Gas  Companies,  until  they 
finally  mutually  agreed  to  divide  the  territory,  the  Manhattan 
Company  supplying  the  territory  between  Grand  Street  and 
34th  Street,  and  the  Metropolitan  Company  that  above  34th 
Street.  The  independent  settlements  of  Manhattan ville  and 
Yorkville  (subsequently  called  Harlem)  were  about  this  time 
supplied  by  another  gas  company,  the  Harlem  Gas  Company. 
In  1848  the  price  of  gas  fell  to  S3. 50,  and  in  1855  it  was  fixed  at 
$2.50,  but  the  companies  at  that  time  charged  in  addition 
a  rental  for  the  gas  meter.  This  meter  rent  was  abolished 
in  1867. 

In  1870  still  another  company,  the  Mutual  Gas  Light  Com- 
pany, was  incorporated,  and  met  at  first  considerable  rivalry 
from  the  three  oldest  companies.  This  company  was  the  first 
to  make  coal  gas  enriched  with  naphtha,  and  furnished  gas  of 
20  candle-power. 

In  1876  a  French  gas  engineer,  Tessie  de  Motey,  introduced  in 
New  York  a  process  for  making  hydrogen  gas,  and  the  result- 
ing brilliant  gas  light,  made  under  his  process,  was  much  admired 
and  sought  for.  This  system,  however,  required  the  laying  of 
two  separate  mains,  one  for  oxygen  gas,  the  other  for  hydrogen 
gas,  which  were  brought  together  at  the  burner  and  created  a 
very  white  light  not  unlike  the  lime  or  calcium  light.  Capitalists 


268  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

became  interested  in  this  process  and  organized  the  Municipal 
Gas  Light  Company,  with  works  at  46th  Street.  Subsequently, 
this  company  made  a  kind  of  water  gas  enriched  by  naphtha, 
by  a  process  suggested  by  Tessie  de  Motey,  modified  by  Mr. 
Wilkinson  and  now  known  as  the  Wilkinson  process.  This  gave 
a  light  of  great  illuminating  power. 

Another  gas  company  was  started  in  1876,  viz.,  the  Knicker- 
bocker Gas  Company,  with  works  at  99th  Street.  The  price 
charged  for  gas  in  1878  was  $2.00. 

In  the  year  1880,  New  York  City  was  supplied  by  nine  gas 
companies,  viz.,  the  New  York,  Manhattan,  Mutual,  Municipal, 
Metropolitan,  Knickerbocker,  Harlem,  Central,  and  Northern 
Companies.  Soon  after  this  date  a  consolidation  of  companies 
took  place,  and  six  companies,  the  New  York,  Manhattan, 
Metropolitan,  Municipal,  Knickerbocker,  and  Harlem,  became 
thereafter  known  as  the  "Consolidated  Gas  Company."  The 
price  of  gas  was  fixed  at  $2.25.  The  Mutual  Gas  Light 
Company  was  the  only  company  on  Manhattan  Island  which 
remained  opposed  to  the  Consolidated  Company.  There  were 
in  1880,  in  New  York  City,  about  860  miles  of  gas  mains  in  the 
public  streets,  and  23,231  street  lamps.  In  1899  there  were 
more  than  1300  miles  of  gas  mains  and  over  27,000  gas  lamps. 
More  than  531  miles  of  city  streets  and  70  acres  of  parks  and 
public  squares  are  lighted  by  gas,  the  annual  cost  per  lamp  to 
the  city  varying  from  $12  to  $28. 

Stockholders  from  the  old  Municipal  Company  started,  in  1882, 
the  Equitable  Gas  Light  Company,  which  built  new  works  in 
1884.  Still  later  the  Standard  Gas  Light  Company  was  organ- 
ized with  works  in  115th  Street,  and  made  gas  from  oil.  This 
was  the  first  company  to  lay  a  large  number  of  miles  of  wrought- 
iron  gas  mains  with  screw  joints,  the  intention  being  to  avoid 
the  large  amount  of  leakage  of  gas  from  cast-iron  gas  mains  with 
lead-caulked  joints.  Still  later,  the  East  River  Gas  Company 
was  organized  with  works  located  at  Ravenswood,  L.  I.,  and 
it  built  a  tunnel  under  the  East  River  to  supply  New  York. 

In  1898,  the  Equitable  and  the  East  River  Gas  Light  Com- 
panies combined  under  the  name  of  the  New  Amsterdam  Gas 
Company.  In  1900,  there  were  four  principal  Gas  Light  Com- 
panies in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  viz.,  the  Consolidated,  the 
Mutual,  the  Standard,  and  the  New  Amsterdam  Companies. 
In  many  cases  mains  of  different  companies  are  located  in  the 


Development  and  Progress  269 

same  street,  thus  giving  the  consumer  the  choice  between 
several  gas  companies.  In  1899  there  was  a  "rate  war,"  and 
since  1900  all  companies  have  combined  so  that  at  the  present 
time  there  is  practically  no  competition.  The  last  step  in  the 
organization  movement  was  the  acquisition  by  the  Consolidated 
Gas  Company,  in  1900,  of  all  competing  plants,  and  furthermore 
the  merging  of  the  gas  and  electric  lighting  interests  of  New  York 
City  under  one  ownership  and  management. 


The  Brooklyn  Gas  Light  Company  was  the  first  company 
to  be  incorporated,  in  1823,  in  Brooklyn,  the  population  number- 
ing then  only  9000  inhabitants.  Notwithstanding  this  early 
incorporation,  gas  was  not  introduced  for  street  lighting  until 
the  year  1848  or  1849,  but  from  this  period  on,  gas  lighting  grew 
rapidly  in  favor,  so  that  in  1852  there  were  50  miles  of  gas  mains 
laid  and  1200  gas  lamps  put  up  in  the  streets. 

The  second  gas  company  to  be  incorporated  was  the  Nassau 
Gas  Light  Company,  which  began  to  supply  gas  in  May,  1873. 
A  third  company,  the  Fulton  Municipal  Gas  Light  Company, 
commenced  operations  in  1880?  and  besides  supplying  its  own 
district,  furnished  also  gas  to  the  Metropolitan,  the  Citizens',' 
and  the  People's  Gas  Companies.  Another  company  was  the 
Williamsburg  Gas  Company,  which  supplied  gas  to  the  Eastern 
District.  In  1893  there  were  eight  gas  companies  in  Brooklyn, 
with  a  total  of  about  600  miles  of  street  mains.  About  the 
year  1896  all  these  companies  consolidated  under  the  name  of 
the  Brooklyn  Union  Gas  Company. 

Besides  the  large  companies  mentioned,  there  are  in  Greater 
New  York  a  number  of  smaller  companies,  supplying  the  out- 
lying or  newly  annexed  districts. 

The  quality  and  candle-power  of  the  gas  supplied  by  the  gas 
companies  is  controlled  and  tested  in  the  Boroughs  of  Manhattan 
and  Brooklyn  by  officially  appointed  gas  testers  and  examiners. 
The  many  complaints  made  from  time  to  time  by  gas  consumers 
about  the  poor  quality  of  the  gas  supply  are,  as  a  rule,  not  due 
to  any  wilful  reduction  in  the  quality  of  the  gas  by  the  com- 
panies. Such  complaints  generally  arise  from  insufficient  size 
or  defective  arrangement  of  the  gas  piping  in  buildings,  or  else 
from  the  fact  that  in  many  streets  the  gas  mains  have  become 
too  small  to  supply  the  district. 


270  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Many  years  ago,  when  there  was  but  a  single  gas  company  in 
a  district,  the  running  of  gas  pipes  in  houses  was  controlled  by 
the  companies,  and  the  regulations  for  interior  gas  piping  and  for 
the  distribution  of  gas,  as  issued  by  them,  had  to  be  strictly 
followed  before  the  company  would  set  a  gas  meter  in  a  house. 
Each  building,  after  being  completely  piped  for  gas,  was  rigidly 
inspected  and  the  piping  tested  by  an  inspector  from  the 
gas  company.  This  practice,  owing  to  the  sharp  competition 
between  the  different  companies,  has  in  recent  years  been  given 
up,  and  the  quality  of  the  gas  piping  work  done  in  the  common 
and  cheaper  classes  of  buildings  has  rapidly  deteriorated.  Many 
dwelling  houses  now  exist  which  have  gas  pipes  of  insufficient 
size,  and  where  gas  log  fires  and  gas  stoves  are  supplied  from 
small  risers  or  branches  intended  originally  for  but  a  few  light- 
ing burners.  In  many  houses  the  gas  burns  dim  when  lamps 
are  turned  on  simultaneously  on  different  floors,  and  the  flames 
begin  to  burn  with  more  brilliancy  whenever  some  are  turned 
off.  In  all  such  cases  the  main  service  pipe,  or  the  house 
pipes,  or  both  are  too  small.  In  other  instances,  the  fault 
is  due  to  obstructions  in  the  service  pipe  by  tarry  matter  or 
naphthalene. 

For  all  these  reasons,  it  became  quite  desirable  that  there 
should  be  a  similar  supervision  and  control  of  the  work  of  gas 
fitters  as  was  practiced  by  the  Department  of  Buildings  over 
the  plumbing  work  in  new  houses.  A  few  years  ago  laws  were 
passed  embodying  this  feature,  and  nowadays  the  Building 
Department  exercises  control,  not  only  over  the  drainage  and 
plumbing  but  also  over  the  gas  piping.  A  similar  inspection 
of  the  gas  piping  exists  in  Boston. 


Until  about  the  year  1878,  gas  lighting  was  the  only  means  of 
lighting,  from  one  central  source  or  station,  the  streets  and 
squares,  and  the  interiors,  of  small  as  well  as  large  buildings. 
At  this  time  appeared  the  first  electric  arc  lamp,  giving  a  white 
light  of  great  intensity,  which,  however,  could  be  used  only  out- 
doors or  at  railroad  stations,  in  large  exhibition  halls,  factories, 
halls  of  audience,  and  in  big  commercial  stores. 

The  years  1881  and  1882  mark  the  advent  of  the  Edison 
electric  incandescent  lamp.  It  was  this  which  gave  the  first 
real  impetus  to  the  competition  between  gas  and  electricity. 


Development  and  Progress  271 

The  electric  lamp  was  at  first  expected  to  interfere  seriously  with 
the  business  of  the  gas  companies.  Up  to  that  date,  gas  burners 
had  been  used  chiefly  in  the  form  of  either  flat-flame  or  Argand 
burners.  The  Siemens  and  other  forms  of  regenerative  gas 
burners,  in  which  both  the  gas  and  the  air  are  heated  before 
combustion,  were  now  put  on  the  market  as  new  forms  giving 
more  concentrated  and  stronger  light. 

The  electric  lamp,  however,  was  much  more  expensive  in 
use  than  these  gas  lamps,  and  gradually  gas  companies  began  to 
feel  safe  again.  It  was  later  on  found  that  the  introduction  of 
electric  lighting  had  in  reality  a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
gas  industry.  Yet  the  electric  incandescent  lamp  had  some 
intrinsic  advantages,  such  as  greater  safety  from  fire,  less  heat- 
ing of  the  surrrounding  air,  less  vitiation  of  the  air  by  products 
of  combustion,  and  more  convenient  control  of  the  lighting  and 
turning  off  of  the  lamps. 

These  palpable  advantages  caused  further  improvements  of 
gas  lights.  About  the  year  1886  some  improved  and  more  eco- 
nomic regenerative  lamps  appeared,  and  soon  afterwards  came 
an  invention,  which  was  destined  to  revolutionize  gas  lighting: 
namely,  a  burner  in  which  a  non-luminous  flame  raised  a  specially 
prepared  mantle  to  incandescence.  This  lamp  became  known 
as  the  Auer  or  Welsbach  lamp  from  the  name  of  its  inventor. 
It  used  very  much  less  gas  for  the  same  intensity  of  illumination, 
but  was  at  first  somewhat  imperfect.  It  w^as  much  improved 
during  the  years  1887  to  1892  by  the  original  inventor  as  well  as 
by  others.  The  improved  lamp  gave  a  light  that  was  much  more 
agreeable  to  the  eyes,  and  gave  three  times  the  amount  of  light 
with  only  half  the  consumption  of  gas. 

The  fact  that  in  recent  years  the  annual  output  from  gas  works 
has  steadily  increased  is  partly  explained  by  the  increasing  use 
of  gas  as  fuel,  but  it  was  also  largely  due  to  the  improvements 
effected  in  gas  burners. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens  predicted  this  for  the  gas  industry  when  in 
1882  he  said:  "I  venture  to  think  that  gas  lighting  will  hold 
its  own  as  the  poor  man's  friend,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  both  rich  and  poor  will  largely  resort  to  gas  as  the  most 
convenient,  the  cleanest,  and  the  cheapest  of  fuels. " 

From  an  interesting  paper  on  " Incandescent  Gas  Lighting," 
by  Professor  Dr.  H.  Bunte,  read  some  years  ago  before  the 
International  Gas  Congress  at  Paris,  I  quote  the  following : 


272  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

11  Incandescent  gas  lighting,  as  opposed  to  the  older  lighting  by  flat- 
flame  and  Argand  burners,  has  assumed  during  the  past  decade  the 
predominant  position  in  Germany.  The  Welsbach  lamp  is  now  the 
recognized  form  for  both  public  and  private  use;  the  older  types  of 
flames  are  continually  losing  ground.  It  has  thus  effected  a  complete 
revolution,  not  merely  in  regard  to  the  illuminating  effect  and  the  economy 
of  gas  lighting,  but  even  the  fundamental  factors  by  which  gas  is  valued, 
and  the  properties  and  manufacture  of  gas  have  been  entirely  altered. 

"  Formerly  '  illuminating  power  '  was  regarded  as  the  principal  cri- 
terion of  the  value  of  gas.  Now  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  gas,  whether 
it  is  used  for  lighting  or  for  heating,  is  first  of  all  mixed  w^ith  air  in  the 
Bunsen  burner.  By  this  means  the  illuminating  constituents  of  flames 
are  completely  destroyed  and  the  heating  effect  of  the  Bunsen  flame 
alone  comes  into  play. 

"  The  quantity  of  light  yielded  is,  in  incandescent  lighting,  no  longer 
directly  dependent  on  the  quality  of  gas  as  made  in  the  works  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  consumer.  It  is  primarily  dependent  on  the  nature  of 
the  mantle  which  is  brought  to  the  luminous  state  in  the  Bunsen  flame. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  prime  interest  to  the  gas  industry  to  follow  the 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  Welsbach  burners,  and  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  mantles  on  the  market. 

"  The  incandescent  gas  lighting  owes  its  illuminating  power  and  bril- 
liancy entirely  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  flame,  therefore  the  grounds 
on  which  the  properties  of  illuminating  gas  are  estimated,  and  the  methods 
used  in  its  manufacture,  must  be  modified,  because  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  Welsbach  burners  the  production  of  light  has  resolved  itself 
simply  into  a  question  of  heating. 

"  Under  the  former  regime  of  flat-flame  and  Argand  burners  the 
greatest  value  attached  to  the  production  of  a  gas,  rich  in  the  so-called 
heavy  hydrocarbons  (etylene  and  benzine) ;  the  lighting  effect  of  the 
flame  depended  entirely  on  the  presence  of  these  constituents.  But  as 
incandescent  lighting  and  the  use  of  non-illuminating  gas  for  heating 
and  cooking  continue  to  spread,  these  illuminants  —  formerly  so  essen- 
tial —  become  less  and  less  valuable. 

"  For  the  determination  of  the  quality  of  gas  a  photometric  test  of  the 
illuminating  power  with  a  bat's-wing  or  Argand  burner  can  no  longer 
form  a  proper  criterion.  It  is  the  calorific  value  of  the  gas  which  now 
plays  the  most  important  part. 

"  When  the  gas  industry  is  freed  from  the  antiquated  control  of  tests  of 
lighting  value  in  flat-flame  and  Argand  burners,  it  at  once  acquires  a 
freedom  in  the  selection,  both  of  raw  material  and  methods  of  manu- 
facture, which  is  of  supreme  significance  in  respect,  not  only  of  its  whole 
future  development,  but  also  of  the  supply  of  towns  with  light,  power 
and  heat  by  means  of  gaseous  fuel." 


Development  and  Progress  273 

In  the  course  of  time,  mantles  of  increased  luminosity,  which 
were  at  the  same  time  less  destructible  and  fragile,  were  manu- 
factured, and  simultaneously  the  cost  of  good  mantles  was 
reduced  somewhat. 

The  latest  development  in  gas  lighting  is  the  inverted  incan- 
descent gas  lamp,  which  gives  a  much  better  downward  dis- 
tribution of  light,  with  shorter  and  therefore  less  breakable 
mantles,  and  which  also  permits  the  designing  of  more  artistic 
forms  of  gas  fixtures.  Simultaneously  herewith,  the  upright  or 
vertical  incandescent  gas  lamps  were  much  improved  by  the  use 
of  specially  ground  prismatic  globes  or  shades,  the  so-called 
"holophane"  globes,  which  enable  the  throwing  of  the  light 
where  most  wanted,  i.e.,  either  outward,  upward  or  downward 
as  may  be  desired. 

Another  improvement,  introduced  since  1898,  was  the  use  of 
an  artificially  increased  gas  pressure  in  the  incandescent  lamps. 

In  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time  great  and  wonderful 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  construction  of  gas  burners, 
gas  lamps,  gas  fixtures,  and  gas  globes.  These  important  im- 
provements, and  similar  ones  in  electric  lighting  devices,  to 
which  I  cannot  refer  as  it  would  be  exceeding  the  subject  matter 
of  this  book,  have  brought  about  a  vast  change  in  the  appearance 
at  night  of  our  streets  and  squares,  of  our  dweUings,  stores, 
factories,  theaters,  and  numerous  other  buildings. 

Thus  we  see  that  during  the  last  two  decades  gas  lighting 
and  electric  lighting  have  become  close  competitors.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  both  forms  of  illumination  and  the 
advantages  which  always  follow  in  the  wake  of  a  sound  competi- 
tion are  exemplified  in  this  friendly  battle  between  the  two  rival 
modern  modes  of  lighting.  This  competition  will  doubtless  be 
kept  up,  the  development  of  the  art  of  illumination  will  make 
further  strides,  and  the  public  will  be  ultimately  benefited, 
while  the  question:  "gas  or  electricity?  "  will  lose  much  of  its 
former  importance. 


The  increasing  use  of  gas  as  fuel  for  both  heating  and  cooking 
leads  naturally  to  a  brief  consideration  of  the  kind  of  fuel  used 
in  the  household  in  former  times.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  wood  was  the  common  fuel  used  in  New  York 
for  heating  and  cooking.  The  wood  was  largely  oak  and  hickory, 


274  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

which  were  considered  the  best,  though  chestnut  and  gum- 
wood  were  also  used.  The  wood  came  to  the  city  on  sloops  or 
schooners,  and  the  cargo  was,  on  arrival  of  the  vessel,  purchased 
by  cartmen  in  such  quantities  as  they  desired.  They  then  drove 
through  the  streets  selling  their  entire  load  or  portions  to 
customers.  The  carts  were  generally  accompanied  by  men  who 
sawed  and  split  the  wood,  and  put  it  into  the  bins  in  cellars. 
Very  little  coal  came  to  New  York  in  the  days  before  the  advent 
of  the  railroads,  as  has  already  been  told.  Only  the  rich  could 
then  afford  the  luxury  of  burning  in  their  parlor  grates  bitumi- 
nous coal,  shipped  to  the  United  States  from  Liverpool  and  New- 
castle. Many  of  the  cooking  operations  were  universally  per- 
formed in  open  fireplaces,  fitted  up  with  large  iron  cranes,  swung 
on  hinges,  which  ran  across  the  'back  of  the  chimney,  and  from 
which  the  cooking  pots  were  suspended  by  iron  chains  or  hooks. 
The  roasting  of  meat  was  accomplished  in  what  was  called  a 
"Dutch  oven ' '  or  else  in  a  "  roasting  jack,"  or  spit.  When  coal 
from  the  mines  in  Pennsylvania  began  to  be  shipped  to  the 
Eastern  States,  first  by  way  of  the  canals  and  then  by  rail,  the 
use  of  coal  in  kitchens  became  more  popular,  and  some  kitchens 
were  fitted  up  with  closed  fire  or  coal  ranges  in  place  of  the  open 
flames.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  modern  kitchen  coal  range 
gradually  superseded  the  former  primitive  devices.  But  in 
recent  years,  prudent,  and  economical  housekeepers  have  not 
been  slow  in  recognizing  the  many  advantages  of  cooking  by 
means  of  gaseous  fuel.  This  is  clean,  labor  saving,  of  the  utmost 
convenience,  and  economical,  if  properly  managed.  In  these 
days  when  gas  is  constantly  becoming  reduced  in  price,  owing  to 
improved  methods  of  manufacture,  while  coal  is  getting  scarcer 
and  at  the  end  of  each  winter  or  during  miners'  strikes  becomes 
higher  in  price,  gas  cooking  ranges  are  rapidly  gaining  in  favor. 
Householders  who  have  provided  their  kitchen  with  a  modern 
gas  range,  who  also  have  an  auxiliary  apparatus,  using  gas  to 
heat  the  water  in  the  kitchen  boiler,  and  who  have  in  the  laundry 
the  convenient  gas  sad  irons  for  ironing,  need  no  longer  lay  in  a 
large  supply  of  coal  for  the  winter  and  pay  the  coal  bill  before  the 
fuel  is  used ;  they  can  save  the  bother  and  annoyance  of  handling 
and  storing  their  kitchen  fuel. 

Numerous  are  the  advantages  of  gas  ranges:  a  gas  range 
requires  no  coal  to  be  carried  up  from  the  cellar,  and  no  ashes 
to  be  carried  away.  A  gas  range  saves  time,  because  it  is 


Development  and  Progress  275 

instantly  lighted,  the  fire  is  under  perfect  control,  it  is  quickly 
adjusted  and  regulated,  it  is  always  ready  for  use,  and  no  fuel 
is  wasted,  for  by  the  turn  of  a  stopcock  the  gas  flame  is  entirely 
put  out.  Gas  fuel  is  also  safer  than  kerosene  oil  or  gasoline. 
Kitchens  fitted  up  with  gas  ranges  are  kept  cleaner;  there  is  no 
soot  nor  dirt,  and  in  summer  time  the  kitchen  can  be  kept  cool 
and  pleasant.  Gas  ranges  also  require  fewer  repairs  than  coal 
ranges,  and  not  the  least  advantage  is  that  they  do  better  cook- 
ing, roasting,  and  broiling.  To  all  these  reasons  is  due  the  recent 
great  activity  in  the  gas  stove  business,  by  which  the  gas  com- 
panies are  profiting  Many  of  the  modern  apartment  houses  in 
New  York  City,  in  Brooklyn,  and  in  other  cities  have  now  kitchens 
fitted  with  gas  instead  of  coal  ranges. 


But  even  for  heating,  gas  is  convenient  and  offers  many 
advantages,  particularly  in  the  autumn  and  spring  of  the  year, 
when  only  a  moderate  heat  is  wanted,  but  likewise  in  zero 
weather,  at  which  time  gas  logs  in  fire  places,  incandescent  gas 
heaters,  gas  stoves,  gas  radiators,  etc.,  are  used  advantageously 
to  increase  or  supplement  the  heat  obtained  from  furnaces  or 
steam  boilers. 

A  successful  and  novel  form  of  gas-heating  stove  has  recently 
been  introduced  in  Germany,  the  inventor  and  manufacturer  of 
which  is  Professor  Junkers,  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  Dessau,  in 
Germany. 

"Should  a  heating  stove  necessarily  stand  on  legs?"  asked 
Professor  Junkers  in  one  of  his  interesting  pamphlets,  describ- 
ing the  new  device.  He  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive  objects,  which  one  has  been  accustomed  from 
childhood  to  see  in  a  certain  form,  being  made  differently. 
Whoever  thought  until  now  of  constructing  a  gas  heating  stove 
of  a  different  form  and  to  place  it  in  a  position  other  than  on  the 
floor?  True,  as  long  as  one  was  obliged  to  use  heavy  and  com- 
pact fuel  for  heating  one  could  not  very  well  dispense  with  the 
solid  and  strong  legs,  embodied  in  the  construction  of  the  usual 
forms  of  heating  stoves.  Since  however  wood  and  coal  are  being 
more  and  more  replaced  by  gaseous  fuel,  it  does  seem  unreason- 
able to  hold  fast  to  old  traditions  and  to  the  clumsy  forms  of  our 
heating  stoves. 

The  Junkers  gas-heating  stoves  are  of  such  form  and  construe- 


276  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

tion  that  they  may  be  attached  to  the  gas-supply  pipe  along  the 
wall  at  any  height  instead  of  being  placed  on  the  floor. 

In  these  stoves  cold  air  is  drawn  in  from  the  bottom,  or  from 
very  near  the  floor  line,  and  passes  upward  at  the  rear  behind  a 
reflector  and  thence  through  a  number  of  flat  tubes  ascending 
towards  the  front  of  the  stove,  and  after  being  heated  by  these 
tubes,  which  are  surrounded  by  the  hot  gases  from  the  burner, 
the  warm  air  passes  out  into  the  room  vertically  upwards  and 
also  forward  at  the  front  of  the  stove.  This  secures  a  strong 
circulation  of  the  air  of  the  apartment,  while  the  downward  rays 
from  the  reflector  tend  to  warm  the  floor  and  the  lower  strata 
of  air.  In  this  way,  a  room  may  be  quickly  and  uniformly 
heated.  There  is  a  complete  combustion  of  the  gas,  the  heat 
units  generated  are  utilized  to  best  advantage  in  the  heating 
surfaces,  and  a  very  intense  heat  is  produced.  The  heated 
gases,  after  having  done  their  work  round  the  air  tubes,  pass 
out  at  the  top  through  a  flue  which  is  connected  with  some 
available  chimney  flue.  These  stoves  are  odorless  and  perfectly 
sanitary,  because  there  is  no  chance  for  products  of  combustion 
to  escape  into  the  room.  The  wall,  or  the  wall  paper  at  the 
back  of  the  stove,  do  not  become  warm,  because  cold  air  ascends 
at  the  back  of  the  stove. 

The  stoves  are  quickly  and  easily  installed  by  connecting  a  gas 
coupling  at  the  top  of  the  stove  with  a  gas  pipe  dropped  from  the 
ceiling  along  the  wall.  The  stove  may  be  placed  at  any  height 
usually  from  12  inches  to  20  inches  above  the  floor,  and  no  other 
wall  clamps  or  fasteners  are  required. 

Gas-heating  stoves  attached  to  a  wall  secure  a  number  of 
advantages  compared  with  the  usual  forms  of  gas  stoves.  In 
the  first  place,  the  installation  is  simple,  and  easily  and  cheaply 
made.  In  connecting  the  old  forms  of  gas-heating  stoves  it  was 
necessary  to  cut  the  gas  pipe  to  exact  measure,  because  the 
heating  stove  had  to  stand  on  the  floor.  In  passing,  it  may  be 
remarked  that  a  permanent  connection  by  means  of  wrought- 
iron  piping  is  much  preferable  to  a  temporary  gas-hose  con- 
nection. The  new  wall  stoves  are  attached  only  at  a  single 
point  of  the  gas  service  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  measure  exactly 
the  distance  of  the  coupling  from  the  floor,  because  the  stove 
does  not  stand  on  the  same. 

Another  advantage  of  considerable  importance  lies  in  the  sav- 
ing of  floor  space.  All  old  forms  of  gas-heating  stoves  require 


Development  and  Progress  277 

a  floor  space  proportionate  to  their  size,  and  the  space  between 
the  floor  and  the  stove  is  rendered  useless.  The  wall  stove 
does  not  occupy  any  valuable  space  in  the  room,  but  can  be 
attached  at  any  part  of  the  wall  wherever  desired,  and  while  it 
gives  a  large  amount  of  heat  the  size  of  the  stove  is  compara- 
tively small. 

Another  advantage  of  wall  stoves  is  one  of  sanitary  impor- 
tance. With  the  old  forms  of  gas  stoves  the  floor  underneath 
them  could  not  readily  be  cleaned.  Dust  and  dirt  and  unhealth- 
ful  matters  accumulated  beneath  them,  and  yet  the  old  form  of 
stove  draws  the  air  from  the  very  part  of  the  floor  which  cannot 
be  cleaned,  causing  the  dust  to  be  drawn  up  and  burned  on  the 
surface  of  the  stove,  producing  an  annoying  odor,  which  can- 
not help  being  disagreeably  felt  by  the  occupants  of  the  apart- 
mant,  and  which  is  surely  unhealthful.  By  hanging  the  stove 
against  the  wall  at  some  height  above  the  floor,  it  is  possible  to 
clean  the  entire  floor  and  therefore  accumulations  of  dirt  and 
dust  cannot  occur. 

A  further  advantage  consists  in  the  more  uniform  warming  of 
the  apartment.  With  all  forms  of  stoves  which  stand  on  legs, 
the  floor  underneath  and  at  the  sides  of  the  stove  does  not  receive 
any  heat  radiation  and  therefore  remains  cold.  The  reflector 
of  the  wall  stove  causes  the  floor  near  and  in  front  of  it  to  be 
warmed,  and  in  this  way  the  lower  strata  are  also  warmed.  This 
in  turn  has  a  tendency  to  warm  the  air  of  the  room  more  uni- 
formly. The  appearance  of  these  new  stoves  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  the  older  gas  stoves  standing  on  a  floor,  and  it  is  pos- 
sible to  design  and  construct  a  large  variety  of  quite  ornamental, 
novel,  and  pleasing  forms. 

Gas-heating  stoves,  in  general,  have  the  following  advantages 
as  compared  with  coal  stoves.  They  require  no  attendance, 
are  quickly  lit  by  the  use  of  a  match  and  can  be  quickly  and 
easily  regulated  after  being  lighted.  The  full  heat  production 
is  utilized  almost  immediately  after  lighting  the  stove  so  that 
the  room  can  be  quickly  warmed,  whereas  in  using  a  coal  stove 
a  great  deal  of  time  must  necessarily  pass  before  it  gives  off  a 
gooi  heat.  When  the  room  is  sufficiently  warm,  the  produc- 
tion of  further  heat  may  be  quickly  and  completely  stopped  in  a 
gas-heating  stove,  while  this  cannot  be  done  with  any  coal  or 
wood  stove.  Relatively  speaking,  the  running  expenses  are 
lower  for  gas-heating  stoves,  because  the  heat  produced  by  the 


278  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

burner  is  very  largely  utilized,  whereas  much  of  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  coal  stoves  is  lost  by  going  directly  up  the  chimney. 
For  temporary  use  gas  heating  may  be  cheaper  than  heating  by 
coal,  even  where  the  price  of  the  fuel  is  higher.  Many  draw- 
backs and  disadvantages  of  coal  stoves  are  done  away  with  by 
using  gas  stoves,  such  as  the  creation  of  dirt,  smoke,  soot,  the 
cleaning  of  the  stoves  and  chimneys,  the  storing  and  transpor- 
tation of  the  fuel,  and  the  removing  of  the  ashes. 

Another  recent  invention  in  which  gas  instead  of  coal  is  used 
as  fuel  is  a  gas-burning  furnace. 

Finally,  gas  is  advantageous  as  fuel  for  operating  small 
motors,  such  as  house  pumps,  etc.,  and  it  is  likewise  used  for 
clothes  dryers,  for  heating  laundry  irons,  and  for  warming  the 
water  used  in  lavatories  and  bathtubs,  as  well  as  in  kitchen  and 
laundries,  not  to  mention  innumerable  minor  industrial  pur- 
poses, in  which  gas  is  used,  partly  for  fuel  and  partly  for  power 
purposes. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   GAS   LIGHTING. 

English  Books, 

Matthews.     Historical  Sketch  of  Gas  Lighting.     London.     1832. 

Peckston.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Gas.    London.    1841. 

Cozens.     The  Gas  Consumer's  Ready  Reckoner.     London.     1860. 

Kidd.     History  of  Gas.     1865. 

Richards.     The  Gas  Consumer's  Guide.     London.     1866. 

Clegg.     On  the  Manufacture  of  Coal  Gas.     London.     1868. 

Wilkins.     How  to  Manage  Gas.     London.     1868. 

Campbell.  Gas  Light  Manual.  Management  of  Gas  for  Domestic  Pur- 
poses. London.  1870. 

Wood.     Gas  Lighting.     Lewes.     1872. 

Richards.     Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Coal  Gas.     London.     1877. 

Bevan.     British  Manufacturing  Industries.     London.     1877. 

Wilson.     Common  Sense  for  Gas  Users.     London.     1878. 

King.     Treatise  on  Coal  Gas.     London.     1879.     3  vols. 

Bower.     Gas  and  Water  Engineer's  Book  of  Reference.     St.  Neots.     1880. 

Denny.     Cooking  and  Heating  by  Gas.     Dunbarton.     1881. 

Sugg.     The  Domestic  Uses  of  Coal  Gas.     London.     1884. 

Galton.     On  Ventilation,  Warming  and  Lighting.     London.     1884. 

Meniman.     Gas  Burners,  Old  and  New.     London.     1884. 

Melson.     Gas  Consumers'  Manual.     London.     1884. 

Hughes  and  Richards.     Gas  and  Gas  Works.     London.     1885. 

Black.     Gas  Fitting.     London.     1886. 

Newbigging.     Devices  for  Gas  Illumination.     London.     1886. 

Sugg.     Modern  Street  Lighting.     London.     1887. 

Dune.     Old  Lights  and  New.     London.     1887. 

Thwaite.     Gaseous  Fuel.     London.     1889. 

Newbigging.  Handbook  for  Gas  Engineers  and  Managers.  London. 
1889.  (There  are  later  editions.) 

Shaw.     Practical  Hints  on  Gas  Consumption.     Huddersfield.     1891. 

Fletcher.     Coal  Gas  as  a  Fuel.     Warrington.     1891. 

Fletcher.    The  Commercial  Uses  of  Coal  Gas.     Warrington.     1891. 

Webber.     The  Science  and  Practice  of  Lighting.     London.     1892. 

Wright.     Coal  Gas  and  its  Uses.     Birmingham.     1892. 

Light  without  a  Wick.     By  "  A.M."    Glasgow.     1892. 

Chilton-Young.  Metal  Working  for  Amateurs.  (Gas  Piping.)  London.  1893. 

279 


280  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Cripp.     Gas  Literature:  English  and  Foreign.     London.     1894. 

(Appendix  to  Transactions  of  Incorporated  Institute  of  Gas  Engineers.) 
Sugg.     Gas  Engineers'  Pocket  Almanac.     London.     1894  and  1895. 
O'Connor.     The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook.     London.     1898. 
Hasluck.     Practical  Gas  Fitting.     London.     1900. 
Newbigging.     A  Hundred  Years  of  Gas  Enterprise.     London.     1901. 
Grafton.     A  Handbook  of  Practical  Gasfitting.     London.     1901. 
Hills.     Gas  and  Gas  Fitting.     London.     1902. 
The  Gas  Fitter's  Guide. 

Grove  and  Thorp.     Chemical  Technology.     Vol.  III.     Gas  Lighting. 
Johnston.     Gas  Lighting  and  the  best  Method  of  applying  it  to  Buildings. 
Ferrier.     Gas  Economy. 

Gas  and  all  about  it:    A  Gas  Consumer's  Vademecum. 
W.  H.  Y.  Webber.     Town  Gas  and  its  Uses  for  the  Production  of  Light, 

Heat  and  Motive  Power.     London  and  New  York.     1907. 
Hole,  W.     Distribution  of  Gas,  with  numerous  Tables,  Diagrams  and 

Figures.     London.     1907. 
Lewes,  Vivian  B.     Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.     London.     1907. 

American  Books. 

Perkins.     Gas  and  Ventilation.     Philadelphia.     1869. 

Cathels.     Gas  Consumers'  Manual.     Montreal.     1873. 

Galloway.     Gasfitters'  and  Plumbers'  Guide.     Philadelphia.     1875. 

American  Meter  Co.     Gas  Engineer's  Pocket  Almanac — 1878. 

Moore.    The  Gas  Consumer's  Guide.     Boston.     1885. 

Humphreys.     Gas  as  a  Source  of  Light,  Heat  and  Power.  New  York.  1886. 

James.    Relation  of  the  Modern  Municipality  to  the  Gas  Supply.     1886. 

Mooney.    The  American  Gas  Engineer's  arid  Superintendent's  Handbook. 

New  York.     1888. 

Bemis.     Municipal  Ownership  of  Gas  in  the  United  States.     1891. 
D.    McDonald    &    Co.     Gas    Engineer's    and    Superintendent's    Pocket 

Annual.     Albany,  N.  Y.     1891. 
Jonesbury.     Lamp  primer.     Columbus,  O.     1893. 
Lomax.     The  Evolution  of  Artificial  Light.     Omaha,  Neb.     1893. 
American  v  Meter    Co.     Gas    Engineer's    and    Superintendent's    Pocket 

Almanac.     1893. 

Gerhard.     Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting.     New  York.     1894. 
Lawler.     Hot  Water  Heating,  Steam  and  Gas  Fitting.     New  York.     1895. 
Hughes  and  Gray.     Practical  Gas  Fitting.     New  York.     1896. 
Martin.    The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal.     New  York.     1896. 
Harland.  The  Comfort  of  Cooking  and  Heating  by  Gas.  New  York.  1898. 
Dunbar.    The  Gas  Fitter's  Question  Book.     Boston.     1898. 
The   United   Gas   Improvement   Co.     Specifications   for   House    Piping. 

Philadelphia.     1901. 


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Appleton's  Universal  Encyclopaedia.     Article  on  Gas. 

Russell  Sturgis.     Dictionary  of  Architecture.     Vol.  2.     Article  on  Gas 

Lighting  by  W.  P.  Gerhard.     1901. 
Bell.    The  Art  of  Illumination.     New  York.     1902. 
Cravath  and  Lansing.     Practical  Illumination.     New  York.     1907. 
Latta.  Handbook  of  American  Gas  Engineering  Practice.  New  York.  1907. 
Gerhard.     The   Superintendence   of   Piping   Installations   in   Buildings. 

New  York.     1907. 
Gerhard.    The  American  Practice  of  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting  in 

Buildings.     New  York.     1908. 

French  Books. 

Payen.     L'Eclairage  au  Gaz.     Paris.     1867. 

E.  Jourdan.     L'Eclairage  au  Gaz.     Le  Mans.     1869. 

Monnier.     Aide-Me*moire  pour  le  Calcul  des  Conduites  de  Distribution  du 

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Figuier.     L'Art  de  L'ticlairage.     Paris.     1887. 
Thomas.     Histoire  de  L'Eclairage.     Paris.     1890. 
Guide  du  Consommateur  de  Gaz.     Marseilles.     1891. 
Mont-Serrac  et  Brisac.     Le  Gaz  et  ses  Applications.     Paris.     1892. 
M.  Leaute.     L'Eclairage.     Paris. 
Galine.    Traite  General  de  L'Eclairage.     Paris.     1894. 


German  Books. 

Rutter.     Gasbeleuchtung.     (Translated  into  German.)     Leipzig.     1835. 
Schmitz.     Populaeres  Handbuch  der  Gasbeleuchtung.     Koeln.     1839. 
Brown.     Vademecum  fuer  Gasconsumenten.     Stuttgart.     1853. 
Hartmann.     Die     Kunst     der    Gebaeude-,     Zimmer-,     und      Strassen- 

Erleuchtung.     Weimar.      1853. 
Schmidt.     Die    verschiedenen    Substanzen,    welche    gegenwaertig    zur 

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Schreiber.     Das  Heizen  und  Kochen  mit  Gas.     Weimar.     1861. 
Jahn.  Gasbeleuchtung  und  die  Darstellung  des  Leuchtgases.  Leipzig.  1862. 
Bolley.     Das  Beleuchtungswesen.     Braunschweig.     1862. 
Hartmann.     Fortschritte  und  Vervollkommnungen  der  Gasbeleuchtung. 

Mit  Atlas.     Weimar.     1864. 
Bischoff.     Gasbeleuchtung.     Berlin.     1864. 
Koehler.     Gas-Meister  fuer  Jedermann.     Leipzig.     1865. 
Raible.     Die  Gasuhr.     Stuttgart.     1865. 

Knapp.     Lehrbuch  der  Chemischen  Technologie.     Braunschweig.     1865. 
Winter.     Neueste  Fortschritte  ueber  das  Leuchtgas.     Wien.     1866. 
Jahn.     Collektaneen  ueber  Gasbrenner.     Dresden.     1868. 
Jahn.    Das  Gas  Buechlein.     Dresden.     1868. 


282  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Das  Gas  Buechlein  des  Herrn  Jahn,  Beleuchtet.  Eine  Warnimg  fuer 
Gaskonsumenten.  Frankfurt  a/M.  1868. 

Offener  Brief  an  Herrn  Jahn.     Frankfurt  a/M.     1868. 

Weber.     Luft  und  Licht  in  menschlichen  Wohnungen.    Darmstadt.  1869. 

Diehl  und  Ilgen.     Gasbeleuchtung  und  Gasverbrauch.     Iserlohn.     1871. 

Blochmann.     Geschichte  der  Gasbeleuchtung.     Dresden.     1871. 

Blochmann.     Vortraege  ueber  Beleuchtung.     Dresden.     1873. 

Ilgen.     Die  Gas  Industrie.     Leipzig.     1874. 

Tieftrunk.     Gasbeleuchtung.     Stuttgart.     1874. 

Quaglio.     Gas  Industrie.     Wien.     1876. 

Perl.     Beleuchtungs-Stoffe.     Wien  und  Leipzig.     1876. 

Fischer.     Die  Petroleum  Lampe.     Weimar.     1876. 

Mendlik.     Gasbeleuchtung.     Budapest.     1879. 

Mueller.     Beleuchtungsgegenstaende.     Berlin.     1879. 

Schilling.     Handbuch  fuer  Gasbeleuchtung.     Muenchen.  1879.   Mit  Atlas. 

Schaar.     Steinkohlen-Gasbereitung.     Leipzig.     1880. 

Strott.     Leuchtmaterialien.     Holzminden.     1880. 

Mueller.     Gasbeleuchtung.     Wien,  Pest  und  Leipzig.     1881. 

Fisher.  Die  Hochbau-Konstructionen :  Handbuch  der  Architektur. 
III.  Teil,  Vierter  Band.  Kuenstliche  Beleuchtung  der  Raeume. 
Darmstadt.  1881. 

Schaar.  Kalender  fuer  Gas-  und  Wasserfach-Techniker.  Muenchen. 
Published  annually. 

Heinzerling.     Petroleum  und  Leuchtgas.     Halle  a.  S.     1885. 

Wobbe.  Verwendung  des  Gases  zum  Kochen,  Heizen  und  in  der  Indus- 
trie. Muenchen.  1885. 

Cohn.     Beleuchtungswerth  der  Lampenglocken.     Wiesbaden.     1885. 

Salomons.     Winke  fuer  Gas  Consumenten.     Mainz.     1885. 

Coglievina.     Leuchtgas  als  Waermequelle.     Wien.     1885. 

Ramdohr.     Leuchtgas  als  Heizstoff.     Halle  a.  S.     1887. 

Muchall.     A-B-C-  des  Gasconsumenten.     Wiesbaden.     1889. 

Coglievina.     Gas-Installation.     Wien,  Pest  und  Leipzig.     1889. 

Brown  und  Schaar.     Vademecum  fuer  Gasconsumenten.    Stuttgart.    1890. 

Coglievina.     Praktischer  Rathgeber  fuer  Gas-Consumenten.    Halle.    1891. 

Pataky.     Installateur-Kalender  1891.     Berlin. 

Thenius.     Fabrikation  der  Leuchtgase.     Wien,  Pest  und  Leipzig.     1891. 

Aschner.     Der  Gasinstallateur.     Berlin.     1891. 

Maerz.     Leitfaden  fuer  Gas-Konsumenten.     Leipzig.     1892. 

Niemann.  1st  Heizen  und  Kochen  mit  Gas  noch  zu  theuer?  Dessau.  1892. 

Coglievina.     Das  Gas  als  Brennstoff.     Muenchen.     1892. 

Schilling.  Neuerungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Erzeugung  und  Verwen- 
dung des  Steinkohlen-Leuchtgases.  Muenchen.  1892. 

Oechelhaeuser.  Die  Steinkohlengasanstalten  als  Licht-,  Waerme-  und 
Kraft-Centralen.  Dessau.  1892. 

Lieckfeld.     Aus  der  Gasmotoren-Praxis.     Muenchen  und  Leipzig.     1893. 


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Toepfer.     Der  praktische  Gasschlosser.     Weimar.     1893. 

Schaefer.     Die  Kraftversorgung    der    deutschen  Staedte  durch  Leucht- 

gas.     Muenchen  und  Leipzig.     1894. 

Homann.     Die  aichfaehigen  Gasmesser-Constructionen.    Muenchen.  1894. 
Pfeiffer.     Das  Gas.     Mit  Atlas.     Weimar.     1896. 

Asche.     Verwendung  des  Gases  zu  Koch-  und  Heiz-Zwecken.  Wien.    1896. 
Strache.     Das  Wassergas:   seine   Herstellung  u.  Verwendbarkeit.    Leip- 
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Handbuch  der  Hygiene.     Dr.  Th.  Weyl.     IV.    Band.      Bau- und  Woh- 

nungs-Hygiene.     Erste  Abteilung:    Die   Beleuchtung.     Prof.   Weber. 

Die  Gasbeleuchtung.     Rosenbaum.     Jena.     1896. 
Der    Staedtische    Tiefbau.     Geh.     Baurat    Prof.    Dr.    Eduard    Schmitt. 

Band  IV.     Die  Versorgung  der  Staedte  mit   Leuchtgas.     Niemann. 

3  Hefte.     (2  Published,  1  in  Preparation.)     1897. 
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Haushalt.     Cannstadt.     1898. 

Lux.     Gas  und  Elektrizitaetswerke  in  Deutschland.     Leipzig.     1898. 
Olshausen.     Elektrolytische     Zerstoerung     von     Rohrleitungen     durch 

Erdstroeme.     Berlin.     1899. 
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Meine  Wohnung  und  Geschaeftsraeume?     Berlin.     1899. 
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Berlin.     1900. 

Frenzel.     Gas  und  seine  moderne  Anwendung.  Wien  und  Leipzig.  1902. 
Schaeffer.     Einrichtung  und  Betrieb  eines  Gaswerks.     1902. 
Lummer.     Die  Ziele  der  Leuchttechnik.     Muenchen  u.  Berlin.     1903. 
Schopper.     Die  Gasgluehlicht-Beleuchtung.     Leipzig.     1903. 
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Natur  und  Geisteswelt  ")     Leipzig.     1906. 
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Erhitzer  mit  Gasfeuerung.     Miinchen.     1906. 
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284  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Schaefer.  Die  angebliche  Gefahrlichkeit  des  Leuchtgases  im  Lichte 
statistischer  Thatsachen.  Miinchen.  1906. 

Schaefer.     Das  Gas  im  biirgerlichen  Hause.     Miinchen.     1907. 

Heim.     Gas  oder  Elektrizitat  ?     Hannover.     1907. 

Bloch.    Grundziige  der  Beleuchtungs-Technik.     Berlin.     1907. 

Schaar.  Kalender  fur  Gas  und  Wasserfach-Techniker.  Miinchen,  Pub- 
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Special  Consular  Report.    Gas  in  Foreign  Countries.    Washington.     1891. 
Committee  of  Franklin  Institute.     Report  on  the  Holophane  Globes  for 

Effecting  the   Better  Diffusion  and  Distribution   of   Artificial    Light. 

April,  1898. 
Reports  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Commissioners  of    Massachusetts, 

Boston,  annually. 
Proceedings  of  American  Gas  Light  Association.     Annual  Reports. 

English  and  American  Pamphlets. 

Ohren.     Advantages  of  Gas  for  Cooking  and  Heating.     1875. 

Wood.     Illuminating  Gas  in  its  Relations  to  Health.     Cambridge.     1877. 

Francis  A.  Walker.  International  Exhibition,  1876.  Reports  and 
Awards.  Group  XIV.  Philadelphia.  1878. 

Fletcher.     The  Use  of  Gaseous  Fuel.     1880.     London. 

Hartley.  Observations  on  Glass  as  an  Obstructor  and  Reflector  of 
Artificial  Light.  London.  1881. 

Crompton.    Artificial  Lighting  in  Relation  to  Health.     London.     1881. 

Hartley.    Calorific  Power  of  Coal  Gas.     1881. 

Field.     Solid  and  Liquid  Illuminating  Agents.     London.     1883. 

Fahie.  Electric  Lighting  considered  from  a  Sanitary  Point  of  View. 
London.  1884. 

Dixon.    The  Use  of  Coal  Gas.     London.     1885. 

Sugg.    Roasting  and  Cooking  by  Gas.     1885. 

Dixon.    The  Use  of  Coal  Gas.     London.     1885. 

Sedgwick  and  Nichols.  The  Relative  Poisonous  Effects  of  Coal  and 
Water  Gas.  Boston.  1885. 

Gregory.     Handbook  on  Gas.     New  York.     1886. 

Colson.     Gas  Cooking  Stoves  on  Hire.     Leicester.     1886. 

Rutter.   Advantages  of  Gas.     Brighton.     1887. 

Fletcher.     Flame  and  Smoke.     London.     1888. 

Fletcher.     Coal  Gas  as  a  Labor  Saving  Agent.     Warrington.     1888. 

United  Gas  Improvement  Co.  The  Lowe  Water  Gas  Apparatus.  Phila- 
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Bryant.     Oil  or  Gas  for  lighting  our  Homes. 

The  Use  of  Gas  Stoves  in  our  Homes.     1890. 

Lewes.     Gaseous  Illuminants.     London.     1891. 

Lewes.     The  Generation  of  Light  from  Coal  Gas.     London.     1893. 

Clowes.  The  Detection  and  Estimation  of  small  Quantities  of  Inflam- 
mable Gas  or  Vapour  in  the  Air.  London.  1894. 

Lewes.    The  Use  of  Gas  for  Domestic  Lighting.     London. 

Stott.  Architect's  and  Surveyor's  Handbook  of  Gasfitting.  London. 
1895. 

Gas  Exposition  at  Madison  Square  Garden.    New  York.    1897. 

Lewes,  Vivian  B.    The  Use  of  Gas  for  Domestic  Lighting.    London.     1897. 

Nicolls.     The  Spirit  of  Coal.     New  York.     1897. 

Lummer.     Light  and  its  Artificial  Production.     Washington.     1898. 

Lighting,  Heating  and  Cooking.     London. 

A  General  Systematic  Plan  for  Detecting  Leaks  in  Gas  Mains. 

Colson.     Economy  and  other  Advantages  of  Cooking  by  Gas.     Leicester. 

Smith.  A  Study  of  Certain  Shades  and  Globes  for  Electric  Lights. 
Part  I,  1900.  Part  II,  1902.  Technology  Quarterly. 

Smith.  Some  Notes  on  Several  Types  of  Mantles  for  Incandescent  Gas 
Burners.  Technology  Quarterly.  1902. 

Peebles.     How  to  Burn  Gas.     Edinburgh. 

Newbigging.     Illuminating  Power  and  Illuminating  Effect. 

Bibbins.     Fuel  Gas  for-Internal  Combustion  Engines.     Cassier's  Magazine. 

Lansingh.  Engineering  of  Illumination.  Reprint  from  Journal  Western 
Society  of  Engineers.  Vol.  VIII.  1903. 

Enos  Co.     A  Renaissance  in  Gas  Lighting.     New  York.     1905. 

Nernst-Lamp  Co.     The  Lighting  of  Public  Buildings.     Pittsburgh.     1906. 

Robb.     Instructions  for  Gas  Distribution  Employees.     New  York.     1906. 

"  Lux  "  —  The  Art  of  Lighting.     Pittsburgh.     1907. 

Gas  Logic.  A  Monthly  Magazine  of  Enlightment  and  Progress.  Pub- 
lished by  the  Consolidated  Gas  Company,  New  York.  Vol.  I,  1906. 
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The  Illuminating  Engineer.  A  monthly  magazine.  Vol.  I,  1906. 
Vol.  II,  1907. 

Bulletins  of  Engineering  Department  of  the  National  Electric  Lamp 
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lamps,  but  No.  7,  of  June  1,  1907,  gives  general  data  on  illumination. 

Six  Pamphlets  Issued  by  the  Holophane  Glass  Co. 
Light  v.  Illumination. 
The  Lighting  of  the  Home. 
The  Lighting  of  Hotels  and  Clubs. 
The  Lighting  of  Large  Buildings,  Offices,  and  Stores. 
The  Lighting  of  Theaters  and  Public  Halls. 
The  Lighting  of  Churches,  Schools,  Libraries,  and  Hospitals. 

Stott,  Jas.    Hints  to  Gas  Consumers.     London. 


286  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Pamphlets  by  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.  E. 

Notes  on  Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting.     New  York.     1890. 

Hints  to  Gas  Consumers  on  the  Proper  Use  and  Management  of  Gas.    1892. 

Artificial  Illumination.     1893.     New  York. 

The  Use  of  Gas  for  Heating  and  Cooking.     New  York.     1894. 

On  Gas  Burners,  Gas  Pressure  Regulators  and  Governor  Burners,  Gas 

Globes  and  Globe  Holders,  and  Gas  Fixtures.     1894. 
The  Relations  Between  Gas  Companies  and  Consumers.    1894. 
Illuminating  and  Fuel  Gas.     1900. 
Suggestions  for  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Gas  Piping  Work.     1900. 

German  Pamphlets  and  Reports. 

Hempfing.     Ueber  Gasbeleuchtung.     Marburg.     1866. 

Nachtsheim.     Gas  und  Elektrische  Beleuchtung.     Wien. 

Kein  Haus  ohne  Gas.     Berlin  und  Miinchen.     Six  Editions. 

Cohn.     Ueber  Kuenstliche  Beleuchtung.     Braunschweig.     1883. 

Quaglio.     Fortschritte  in  der  Gasindustrie.     Berlin.     1885. 

Die  Elektrische  Beleuchtung  des  kgl.  Hoftheaters  in  Miinchen.     Central- 
blatt  fuer  Elektrotechnik.     1885. 

Pettenkofer.     Ueber  Vergiftung  mit  Leuchtgas.     Miinchen. 

Mehlhausen.     Ueber  Kuenstliche  Beleuchtung.     Berlin.     1885. 

Mohrmann.     Ueber  die  Tagesbeleuchtung  Innerer  Raeume.  Berlin.   1885. 

Osthues.    Fabrikation  und  Verwendung  des  Wassergases.  Dortmund.  1885. 

R.  Goehde.     Ueber  die  Neuesten  Fortschritte  in  der  Verwendung  des 
Leuchtgases  zum  Kochen,  etc.     Gewerbeschau.     1893. 

Aschner.     Gluehlicht  mittelst  Gas  Erzeugt.     Leipzig.     1893. 

Dr.  Meidinger.  Gas-Heizung  u.  Gas-Oefen.  Badische  Gewerbezeitung  1894. 

Hartmann.     Die  Fortschritte  der  Gas -und  der    elektrischen    Beleuch- 
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Arche.     Ueber  neue  Gas-Schuloefen.     Triest.     1895. 

Arche.  Verwendung  des  Gases  zu  Heiz-  und  Koch-Zwecken.  Wein.   1896. 

Verwendung  des  Gases  zu  Heiz-  und  Kochzwecken.     Wien.     1896. 

Meidinger.     Gas  oder  Elektrizitaet?     Karlsruhe.     1898. 

D.  Coglievina.     Gasdruck  und  Gasverbrauch. 

Anleitung  zur  richtigen   Konstruktion,   Aufstellung   und    Handhabung 
von  Gasheiz-Apparaten.     Miinchen.     1907. 

Die  Verwendung  von  Spiritus  im  Haushalt.  Herausg.    von  der  Centrale  fiir 
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Miniatur-Bibliothek  - 

No.  176  Moderne  Beleuchtung- Allgemeines-Kerzen  u.  Lampen. 

177  Moderne  Beleuchtung-Beleuchtung  durch  Gase. 

178  Moderne  Beleuchtung-Das  elektrische  Licht. 

389  Moderne  Beleuchtung-Herstellung  des  Leuchtgases. 
434  Auer's  Osmiumlampe-Bremer  Lampe. 


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265  Tesla-Licht,  Moore's  Beleuchtung,  Press  gas,  Luftgas. 
234  Azetylen. 

General  Articles  on  Gas  Lighting. 

D.  Coglievina.  Increased  Gas  Consumption  —  Its  Cause  and  Preven- 
tion. The  American  Engineer.  1886. 

A  Perfect  Gas  Regulator.     The  American  Architect.     1890. 

J.  H.  Troughton.  Consumers' Fittings.  American  Gas  Light  Journal.  1892. 

W.  H.  Anson.  Should  Gas  Companies  do  all  Gas  Fittings  ?  The  Ameri- 
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The  Hero  of  Gas.     American  Architect.     1892. 

G.  A.  Allen.  Discrimination  by  Gas  Companies  in  the  Treatment  of  their 
Consumers.  Ohio  Gas  Light  Association.  1893. 

D.  McDonald.  A  Talk  on  Natural  Gas.  Engineer's  and  Architect's 
Association.  1894. 

Gas  Piping  for  Buildings.     Engineering  Record.     1894. 

The  Planning  and  Lighting  of  the  Modern  House.  Journal  of  Gas  Light- 
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J.  P.  Gill.     Distribution  of  Gas.     American  Gas  Light  Journal.     1894. 

H.  Hopkins.  The  Evolution  of  Artificial  Light.  Plumbing  and  Gas 
Fitting.  1896. 

D.  Macfie.  Gas  Control  from  Meter  to  Burner.  American  Gas  Light 
Journal.  1897. 

Cappelen.     Municipal  Lighting  in  the  United  States.     1897. 

W.  Hallock.     Diffused  Illumination.     Progressive  Age.     1898. 

W.  Eckstein.     Interior  Lighting.     American  Architect.     1898. 

Gas  Pipe  Engineering.     American  Gas  Light  Journal.     1899. 

Gas  Piping  Topics.     American  Gas  Light  Journal.     1899. 

Manufacture  of  Illuminating  Gas.     Scientific  American.     1900. 

The  Manufacture  of  Coal  Gas.     Scientific  American.     1900. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Greene.  Prismatic  Lighting  for  the  Illumination  of  Dark 
Interiors.  American  Architect.  1900. 

F.  Erismann.     Hygienic  Lighting.     Progressive  Age.     1900. 

W.  Fletcher.     The  Inventor  of  Gas  Lighting.     Engineering  Magazine. 

H.  Crew.     On  the  History  of  Our  Ideas  Concerning  Illumination. 

J.  R.  Bibbins.     Fuel  Gas  for  Combustion  Engines.     Cassier's  Magazine. 

Shepardson.  Artificial  Lighting.  1897.  Journal  of  the  Association  of 
Engineering  Societies. 

Greenough.  Modern  Gas  Engineering.  1898.  Journal  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  Engineering  Societies. 

Vincent,  G.  I.  Standard  Methods^  in  Service,  Meter,  Appliance  and 
House  Fitting.  American  Gas  Light  Journal.  July,  1907. 


288  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Gas  Meters. 

Autobiography  of  a  Measurer  of  Light.     Progressive  Age.     1886. 

C.   W.   Hinman.     Some   Facts  About  the   Gas  Meter.     American    Gas 

Light  Journal     1886. 

The  Alleged  Vagaries  of  the  Gas  Meter.  American  Gas  Light  Journal.  1886. 
G.  Keillor.     How  to  Keep  down  Complaints  and  Grumbling  Amongst 

Consumers.     Journal  of  Gas  Lighting.     1892. 
F.  Egner.     An  Unpopular  Subject  Popularly  Treated.     American   Gas 

Light  Journal.     1893. 
New  Prepayment  Meters  and  Gas  Lighters.     Journal  of  Gas  Lighting. 

1894. 
W.  R.  Herring.     How  to  Burn  and  How  to  Save  Gas.     Gas  Engineer's 

Magazine.     1895. 

The  Explosion  of  Gas  Meters.     The  Metal  Worker.     1900. 
H.  S.  Wynkoop.     Gas  and  Gas  Meters.     Popular  Science  Monthly.     1905. 
W.  McDonald.     History  of  the  Gas  Meter.     Progressive  Age. 


Cooking  by  Gas. 

Dr.  Macadam.     On  the  Sanitary  Aspects  of  Cooking  and  Heating  by  Gas. 

Journal  of  Gas  Lighting.     1882. 

Experiments  with  Gas  Stoves.     The  Metal  Worker.     1893. 
W.  W.  Goodwin.     Advantages  of  Gas  over  Coal  for  Cooking  and  Heating 

Purposes.     American  Gas  Light  Journal.     1893. 
W.  H.  Manwaring.     Gas  Cookers.     Progressive  Age.     1893. 
Th.  Fletcher.    The  Use  of  Coal  Gas  for  Domestic  Purposes  other  than 

Lighting.     Hygiene.     1894. 


Rules  for  Gas  Piping. 

W.  B.  Gray.     Practical  Gas  Fitting.     The  Metal  Worker.     1890. 

J.  Lyne.     Gas  Fittings  and  Their  Supply  by  Gas  Undertakings.     Gas 

Engineer's  Magazine.     1893. 

J.  W.  Hughes.     Gas  and  Gas  Fitting.     The  Metal  Worker.     1894. 
H.  O'Connor.     Practical  Gas  Fitting  from  Main  to  Burner.     Building 

World.     1895. 

The  Delivering  Capacity  of  Gas  Mains.     Gas  World.     1896. 
L.  T.  Wright.     Diagrams  showing  Delivery  of  Gas  by  Pipes  and  Loss  of 

Pressure  at  Point  of  Discharge.     Gas  World.     1896. 
W.  Grafton.     Determining  the  Size  of  Gas  Pipes.      American  Gas  Light 

Journal.     1899. 

Practical  Gas  Fitting.     Progressive  Age.     1900. 
P.  Thirman.     Proper  Supervision  of  Gas  Fittings.     Light,  Heat    and 

Power. 


Bibliography  of  Gas  Lighting  289 

Gas  Burners. 

E.  Stein.     Can  Large  Gas  Burners  Successfully  compete  with  Arc  Electric 

Light?     American  Gas  Light  Journal.     1886. 
J.  A.  Faux.     Gas  Burners.     Ohio  Gas  Light  Association.     1892. 
Th.     Travers.     Gas     Burners.     A     Suggestion.      American    Gas    Light 

Journal.     1893. 
Economical  Use  of  Gas  for  Light.     Progressive  Age. 


Accidents  with  Gas  and  Dangers  of  Gas  Lighting  to   Health. 

L.  Stieringer.  The  Evolution  of  the  Fixture  Art  and  Decorative  Illumi- 
nation. Electrical  Review.  1891. 

Fatal  Gas  Accidents.     The  Queen.     1893. 

I.  Butterworth.  Ninth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Ohio  Gas  Light  Associa- 
tion. Columbus,  O.  Progressive  Age.  1893.  Governor  Burners. 

Bayles.    Hazard  of  Gas  Leakage.     1902.     Insurance  Engineering. 


Articles  on  Gas  by  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard. 

Notes  on  Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting.     Philadelphia.     Builder  and 

Decorator.     1889. 

Notes  on  Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting.  American  Gas  Light  Journal.  1890. 
Hints  to  Gas  Consumers  on  the  Proper  Use  and  Management  of  Gas.  1892. 
Artificial  Illumination.     New  York.     1893. 
The  Relations  between  Gas  Companies  and  Gas  Consumers.     Gassier >s 

Magazine.     1894. 
On  Gas  Burners,  Gas  Pressure  Regulators  and  Governor  Burners,  Gas 

Globes  and  Globe  Holders,  and  Gas  Fixtures.     Journal  of  Franklin 

Institute.     1894. 
Municipal  Rules  and  Regulations  Regarding  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Fitting 

in  the  City  of  Munich,  Germany.     Light,  Heat  and  Power.     1894. 
Accidents  with  Gas.     American  Architect.    1899. 
Dangers  of  Illuminating  and  Fuel  Gas.     Progressive  Age.     1900. 
The  Development  and  Progress  of  the  Gas  Industry  in  Greater  New  York. 

Engineering  Review.     1900. 
Illuminating  and  Fuel  Gas.     Its  Dangers  to  Health  and  How  to  avoid 

Them.     Cassier's  Magazine.     1900. 
The  Superintendence  of  Sanitary,  Hydraulic  and  Gas  Piping  Work  in 

Buildings.     Architects  and  Builder's  Magazine.     1900. 
Suggestions  for  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Gas  Piping  Work.     Science 

and  Industry.     1900. 
The  Use  of  Gas  for  Cooking  and  Heating.     Metal  Worker. 


290  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

A    PARTIAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF  ACETYLENE 
ILLUMINATION. 

English  Books. 

G.  F.  Thompson.  Acetylene  Gas:  Its  Nature,  Properties  and  Use;  also 
Calcium  Carbide:  Its  Composition,  Properties  and  Method  of  Manu- 
facture. London.  1898. 

G.  F.  Thompson.     Acetylene  and  Calcium  Carbide.     Liverpool.     1898. 

W.  E.  Gibbs.  Lighting  by  Acetylene:  Generators,  Burners  and  Electric 
Furnaces.  New  York  and  London.  1898. 

G.  G.  Pond.  The  Application  of  Acetylene  Illumination  to  Country 
Homes.  Bulletin  No.  57,  Department .  of  Agriculture,  Pennsylvania. 
1900.  (Contains  Bibliography.) 

Leeds  and  Butterfield.  Acetylene :  Its  Generation  and  Use.  London.  1903. 

Turner.     Acetylene  Gas:  How  to  Make  and  Use  it.     London.     1904. 

J.  A.  Matthews.  Review  and  Bibliography  of  the  Metallic  Carbides. 
Washington. 

German  Books. 

F.  Marsden.     Zur  Kenntniss  des  Acetylens.     Heidelberg.     1892. 

G.  Pelissier.     Praktisches    Handbuch    der    Acetylenbeleuchtung    und 
Calciumcarbidfabrikation.     Transl.  by  A.  Ludwig.     Berlin.     1897. 

K.  Visbeck.     Calcium  Carbid  und  Acetylen.     Herstellung  und  Verwen- 

dung  derselben.     Halle.     1897. 
Dr.  Jovan  P.  Panaotovic.     Calcium  Carbid  und  Acetylen,  in  Vergangen- 

heit,  Gegenwart  und  Zukunft.     Leipzig.     1897. 
F.  Grover.     Ueber  den  Druck  und  die  Explosionskraft  von  Acetylen- 

luftmischungen.     Leeds.     1898. 
Froelich  und  Herzfeld.     Stand  und  Zukunft  der  Acetylenbeleuchtung. 

Berlin.     1898. 

Dommer.     Calciumcarbid  und  Acetylen.     Muenchen  und  Leipzig.     1898. 
H.  F.  B.  Schaefer.     Kalender  fuer  Acetyleniker  fuer  das  Jahr  1899. 

Berlin.     1898. 
Fr.  Peters.   Fortschritte  der  angewandten  Electrochemie  und  der  Acetylen  - 

Industrie  im  Jahre  1898.     Stuttgart.     1899. 
Dr.  Ludwig.     Fueher  durch  die  gesammte  Calciumcarbid  und  Acetylen- 

Literatur.     Berlin.     1899. 

Ahrens.     Das  Acetylen  in  der  Technik.     Stuttgart.     1899. 
Scholtze.     Ueber  Acetylenbeleuchtungsanlagen.     Leipzig.     1901. 
F.    Liebetanz.     Hilfsbuch    fuer  Installation    von    Acetylenbeleuchtungs- 

Anlagen.     Leipzig.     (No  date.) 


Bibliography  of  Gas  Lighting  291 


French  Books. 

F.  Dommer.     L'Incandescence  par  le  Gaz  et  le  Petrole.     L'Acetylene  et 
ses  Applications.     Paris.     1896. 

G.  Dumont  et  E.  Hubon.     Historique,  Proprie*tes,  Fabrication,  Applica- 
tions de  1' Acetylene.     Paris.     1896. 

C.  de  Perroclil.  Le  Carbure  de  Calcium.  Paris  and  Marseilles.  1896. 
R.  Pictet.  Le  Carbite,  nouveau  procede  pour  sa  fabrication.  Geneve.  1896. 
R.  Pictet.  L'Acetylene,  son  passe,  son  present,  son  avenir.  Geneve.  1895. 
J.  Reyval.  L'Eclairage  a  1'Acetylene.  Construction  pratique  et  installa- 
tion a  la  portee  de  tous  d'un  appareil  pour  cet  eclairage.  Paris.  1896. 
H.  Moissan.  Le  four  clectrique.  Paris.  1897. 

F.  Drouin.     L'Acetylene.     Paris.     1897. 

G.  Dumount.     L 'Acetylene  et  son  application  a  1'eclairage.     Conference 
faito  a  Annecy.     1897. 

G.  Gastine.  L'Acetylene  et  ses  applications  a  1'eclairage.  Conference 
faite  a  la  Societe  scientifique  industrielle  de  Marseilles.  1897. 

L.  Mathet.  L'  Eclairage  a  1'Acetylene.  Construction  pratique  et  instal- 
lation a  la  portee  de  tous  d'un  appareil  pour  cet  eclairage.  Paris.  1897. 

G.  Pelissier.  L'Eclairage  a  1'Acetylene.  Historique,  fabrications,  appar- 
eils,  applications,  dangers.  Paris.  1897. 

J.  Reyval.     Une  Revolution  dans  1'Eclairage  domestique.     Paris.     1897. 

C.  de  Perrodil.     Le  Carbure  de  Calcium  et  Acetylene.     Paris.     1897. 

E.  Capelle.     L'Eclairage  a  1'Acetylene.     Paris.     1898. 

L.  Gastine  et  Saint  Paul.     Eclairage.     Paris.     1898. 

P.  Hubert.     Album  de  1'Acetylene.     Paris.     1898. 

J.  Lefevre.     Carbure  de  Calcium  et  Acetylene.     Paris.     1898. 

J.  Reyval.  Gare  les  Explosions!  L'Eclairage  des  velos  a  1'acetylene. 
Conseils  aux  cyclistes.  1898. 

J.  Reyval.     L'Eclairage  de  demain:  L'Acetylene.     Paris.     1898. 


English  Articles. 

Cheap  Illuminating  Gas. —  Discovery  of  a  New  Method  of  Manufacture. 

The  Evening  Post.     New  York.     March  9,  1895. 
Some    Notes    on    the    History    of    Electro-Smelting.     Progressive    Age. 

July,  1895. 

The  Illuminating  Value  of  Acetylene.     Progressive  Age.     August,  1895. 
Acetylene.  Lecture  by  W.  W.  Goodwin.  Progressive  Age.  November,  1895. 
The  Poisonous  Properties  of  Acetylene.      Progressive  Age.     March,  1896. 
Notes  on  the  Use  of  Acetylene  Gas  as  an  Illuminant.     Progressive  Age. 

March,  1896. 

An  Acetylene  Standard  for  Photometry.     Progressive  Age. 
The  Explosiveness  of  Acetylene. 


292  Gas  Piping  and  Gas  Lighting 

Carbide  of  Calcium.  —  Acetylene  Gas.  —  Contains  Bibliography.  Pro- 
gressive Age.  April,  1896. 

Ed.  Hospitaller.  Carbide  of  Calcium  and  Acetylene  and  their  Applica- 
tions. Progressive  Age.  May,  1896. 

Berthelot  and  Violle.  Studies  of  the  Explosive  Properties  of  Acetylene. 
December,  1896. 

Rules  in  Regard  to  the  Preparation  of  Acetylene.  Report  of  Committee 
of  French  Scientists  and  Officials.  Progressive  Age.  January,  1897. 

Storage  of  Calcium  Carbide  and  Acetylene.  Editorial  Comment  from 
the  London  Chemical  Trade  Journal.  Progressive  Age.  March,  1897. 

Restrictions  Placed  Upon  Carbide  of  Calcium  in  England.  Progressive 
Age.  April,  1897. 

Acetylene.     Discussion  before  the  Berlin  Society  of  Chemical  Industry. 

Cost  of  Acetylene  on  Board  Ships.  Lecture  by  Vivian  B.  Lewes.  Pro- 
gressive Age.  May,  1897. 

Recent  Foreign  Notes  on  Acetylene. 

Carburetted  Water  Gas.     Report  by  Vivian  B.  Lewes. 

Professor  Oettli.     Acetylene  Illumination. 

Professor  Clowes.  Explosibility  of  Liquid  Acetylene.  Progressive  Age. 
May,  1897. 

C.  E.  Brown.  Recent  Researches  with  Acetylene.  Progressive  Age. 
July,  1897. 

Solutions  of  Acetylene  and  Their  Explosive  Properties.  Messrs.  Berthe- 
lot and  Violle.  Progressive  Age.  September,  1897. 

Renouf.     The  Use  of  Acetylene.     Popular  Science  Monthly.     1899. 

Acetylene  Gas  Catechism.     Pan  American  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

Acetylene  Gas.     Architecture  and  Building. 

Acetylene  as  Viewed  by  Insurance  Men.     Architecture  and  Building. 

Gas  of  240  Candle-power.     Acetylene.     Journal  of  Gas  Lighting. 

The  Acetylene  Journal.     Chicago,  111. 

Lansingh,  V.  R.  Illumination  of  the  House  by  Acetylene.  Paper  read 
before  the  International  Acetylene  Association.  Metal  Worker. 
November,  1907. 

German  Articles. 

O.  C.  Reyman.  Acetylen.  Mitteilungen  des  Techniker- Verbandes. 
December,  1898. 

English  Pamphlets. 

Birchmore.     Acetylene  Gas.     Its  History  and  Utilization.     New  York. 

1897. 
Rules  and  Requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for 

the  Construction,  Installation,  and  Use  of  Acetylene.     1900  and  1901. 


Bibliography  of  Gas  Lighting  293 

List  of  Acetylene  Gas  Machines  examined  under  the  Rules  and  Require- 
ments of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.     Revised  Quarterly. 
Acetylene  and  Its  Hazards.     The  Insurance  Press.     New  York. 


German  Pamphlets. 

F.  Liebetanz.  Gesetzliche  Verordnungen  und  Vorschriften  der  Feuer- 
versicherungs-Gesellschaften  fuer  Herstellung  und  Anwendung  von 
Calciumcarbid  und  Acetylen.  Leipzig. 

A.  Bujard.  Ueber  Leuchtgas,  Gasgluehlicht,  und  Acetylen.  Reprint 
Stuttgart, 


INDEX 


Absorption  of  light  by  glass  globes,  138. 
Accidents  with  gas,  204,  214,  229,  235, 

251,  253. 

Accumulators,  188. 
Acetylene  gas,  180,  185,  186,  198,  242, 

244. 

apparatus  for  making,  243. 
burners,  special  for,  185,  243. 
discovery  of,  242. 
fittings,  98. 
lighting,  97,  180,  186,  244. 

cost  of,  188,  189,  190. 
machines,  185,  186. 
meters,  154. 

piping,  97,  98,  99,  100,  101,  186. 
Acetylene  generators,  185,  194,  243. 

lamps,  portable,  180,  186. 
Advantages  of  electric  lighting,  187. 
gas  as  an  illuminant,  12,  199. 
for  cooking,  204,  275,  276. 
heat  and  power,  16. 
light,    fuel,     and    power    pur- 
poses, 205. 
oil  lamps,  182. 
wall  gas  heating  stoves,  276. 
Air,  contamination  of,  by  gas,  5,  9,  127. 
Air  gas,  advantages  of,  185. 
carburetted,  1,  241. 

machine    for    producing, 

184. 

illumination,  180. 
machines,  185. 
piping  for,  87,  185. 
process  of  making,  184. 
Air-hole  burner,  124. 
Albo-carbon  light,  194. 
Alcohol,  180. 

denatured  or  industrial,  183. 
lamps,  incandescent,  183. 
All-around  keys,  use  of,  231,  251. 
American    Public    Health    Association, 

Report  of  Committee  of,  237. 
Anniversary  of  first  use  of  gas,  2. 
Apartment  house  kitchens,  with  gas 

instead  of  coal  ranges,  275. 
Appliances,  domestic  gas  burning,  202. 
for  heating  water,  204,  205,  274. 
making  acetylene  gas,  243. 
improved  gas,  204,  205. 
pressure  reducing,  201. 


Appliances,  (Cont.) 

showroom  for  gas,  205. 
Arc,  electric  198,  270. 
Argand  burners,  Sugg's  improved,  113, 

118,  119,  120,  271. 

Arrangement   of   gas   piping  in   build- 
ings, 22,  42. 
Artificial  gas,  1. 

illumination,  requirements  of,  179. 

of  interiors,  108. 

increase    of    gas    pressure    in   incan- 
descent lamps,  273. 
Asphyxiation,  5,  213,  230,  245,  254. 
Atmospheric  changes  affecting  quality 

of  gas,  8. 

Automatic  gas  governors,  130,  131. 
gas  pressure  control,  130. 
regulator  burners,  132. 
safety  gas  burners,  117,  231,  255. 

B. 

Bat-whig  burner,  113,  129,  210. 

"Beacon "lamps,  Gleason,  120. 

Benzine,  180.  * 

Bibliography  on  gas  lighting,  263. 

Bills,  gas,  18,  161,  201,  202,  211,  218. 

Board  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Com- 
missioners of  Mass.,  statistics  of, 
254. 

Board  of  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Com- 
missioners of  Mass.,  annual  re- 
ports of,  229. 

Boore  burner,  133. 

Boston  Board  of  Health  and  Building 
Commissioner's  rules  on  gas  fit- 
tings, 62. 

Gas  Light  Company's  rules  for  gas 
piping,  61. 

Bower  regenerative  lamps,  121. 

Bracket,  gas,  108,  142,  212. 
lamps,  146. 

Branches,  for  chandeliers,  28. 
sizes  of,  29. 
to  side  wall  burners,  28. 

Bray  burners,  116. 

Bray's  high-power  street  lamp  burner 
120. 

"Brilliant"  regenerative  lamps,  121. 

British  regulations  for  gas  fittings,  78. 

Bronner  burners,  116. 

Brooklyn  streets,  early  lighting  of,  121. 
295 


296 


Index 


Brooklyn  Union   Gas  Company,  incor- 
poration of,  269. 
Brown's  regenerative  lamps,  121. 
Building     department's     control     over 

gas  fitters'  work,  270. 
regulations,  municipal,  34. 
Bunsen  burner,  112,  227. 
Bunte,     Prof.,      on    incandescent     gas 

lighting,  226,  248,  271. 
Burner,  111,  203. 
acetylene,  185,  243. 
adamas  tip,  115. 
air-hole,  124. 
aluminum  tip,  115. 
Argand,  113,  118,  271. 
automatic,  255. 

safety,  117,  231. 
gas  governor,  130. 
bats-wing,  113,  129. 
blowing,  203. 
Boore,  133. 
Bray,  116,  129. 
Broenner,  116,  129. 
Bunsen,  112. 
check,  114,  117,  129. 
cleaners,  115. 

cleaning  and  removal  of,  204. 
corrosion  in  gas,  209. 
consumption    of    gas,    77,    128,    129, 

131,  135,  200. 

determination    of    hourly    consump- 
tion of,  210. 
duplex  gas,  120. 
enamel  tip,  115. 
fish-tail,  113. 
flat  flame,  113,  116. 
gas,  108,  203. 

imported,  266. 
lighting,  204. 
Germania  Argand,  120. 
Gleason  Argand,  119. 
governors,  117,  130,  133,  204. 
high-power,  120. 
improved,  203,  209. 
incandescent,  113,  119,  123. 
gas,  4,  123,  124. 
mantles,  210. 
Welsbach,  123. 
in  candle  form,  incandescent  mantle, 

175. 

inverted,  3,  113,  124. 
Kern,  123. 
Leoni,  116,  129. 
Lewis,  123. 
mantle,  120. 

manufacture  of  Welsbach,  272. 
Morey  incandescent  gas,  119. 
multiple,  120. 
number  of,  with  given  size  pipe,  36, 

94,  96. 
on  chandeliers,  height  of,  177. 


Burner,  (Cont.) 

on  chandeliers,  size  of,  171. 
regenerative,  113,  120,  121,  125,  271. 
round-flame,  113,  118,  119. 
safety  regulator,  118. 
self-lighting,  255. 
self -igniting,  124,  177. 
Siemens  precision,  119. 

regenerative,  271. 
Silber,  116. 
single- jet,  113. 
size  of,  117. 
slit-union,  113. 

special  open  flame,  for  air  gas,  184. 
steatite  tip,  115. 
Sugg's,  115,  116,  119,  122,  129,  132. 

improved  Argand,  119. 

London,  119. 

London      improved      Argand 
governor,  119. 

Winsor,  129. 
sun,  175. 

table  top,  115,  116,  132. 
tests,  161. 
tips,  114,  115. 

broken  lava,  213. 
twin  flat-flame,  120. 
union-jet,  113,  116. 
use  of  bad  or  cheap,  201. 

flat-flame,  27V. 

volumetric  governor,  203. 
ventilating,  125. 
volumetric,  132,  133. 
Young  American,  129. 
Butzke  regenerative  lamps,  121. 

C. 

Calcium  carbide,  1,  185,  242. 

Calorific  power  of   gas,  215,  224,   227, 

272. 

Candle  form,  incandescent  mantle  burn- 
ers in,  175. 

illumination,  111,  180,  264. 
Candle-power  of  gas,  217,  224,  225,  269. 
Candles,  181,  198,  264. 
electric,  212. 

in  windows,  formerly  used  for  light- 
ing up  streets,  264. 
tallow  and  spermaceti,  181,  264. 
wax,  stearine  and  paraffine,  15,  181. 
Capacities    of    gas    mains,    insufficient, 

218. 

meters,  76,  78. 
pipes,  77. 

Carbon  filament,  180. 
Carbonic  oxide   in  gas,  213,  229,  244, 

248. 

Carburetted  air  gas,  machine  for  pro- 
ducing, 241. 
hydrogen,  244. 
water  gas,  240. 


Index 


297 


Carburetting  of  gas,  125. 

Care  in  use  of  gas  fixtures,  230. 

of  gas  fixtures,  225. 
Car  lighting,  124. 
Ceiling,  protection  of,  212. 
Cement,  gas  fitters',  use  of,  27. 
Central  Gas  Company,  starting  of,  288. 
Chandeliers,  108,  142,  144,  146. 
Check  burners,  114,  117,  129. 
Chicago  People's  Gas   Light  and  Coke 
Company's    rules    and    tables    for 
gas  fitting,  71,  86. 
Chimneys,  cleaning  of,  204. 
Cincinnati  Gas   Light   and   Coke  Com- 
pany's rules  for  gas  fitting,  69. 
Circulation  system,  gas,  '28. 
City  gas,  cost  of,  190. 
Clamond  lamps,  123. 
Clark  regenerative  lamp,  121. 
Cleaners  for  burners,  115. 
Clegg's  table  of  discharge  of  gas  pipes, 

45. 

Clothes  dryers,  gas  heated,  219. 
Cluster  lights,  142. 
Coal,  266,  274. 

heat  units  in,  17. 

gas,  1,  239,  240,  267. 
Combustion,  imperfect,  127. 

products  of,  in   case  of  illuminating 

gas,  4. 
Comparison  of  gas  and  water  service, 

224. 

Compensating  gas  meter,  152. 
Complaints  of  gas  consumers,  159,  200, 

214. 
Composition  of  coal  gas,  240. 

natural  gas,  239. 

water  gas,  241. 
Concordia  burner,  116. 
Condensation  in  gas  meters,  216. 

vapor  of,  29. 
Connections  for  gas  meters,  155. 

heating  and  cooking  fixtures,  252. 

lead  and  iron,  155. 
Consolidated  Gas  Company  formed,  268. 

of     New     York,      specifications     for 

house  piping,  50. 

Consumers,  instructions  to  gas,  236. 
Consumption     of     gas,      for     different 
burners,  77. 

in  gas  engines,  20. 

principles  of  gas,  202. 

the  day,  2,  131,  135. 
Cornelian  globes,  117. 
Corrosion   of   service    pipes,    protection 

against,  249. 
Cost  of  acetylene  gas,  188,  189. 

electric  incandescent  lighting,  190, 192. 

gas,  4,  13,   14,  17,  18,  190,  222,  266, 
267,  268. 

gas  in  London,  223. 


Cost  of,  (Cont.) 

gas  in  New  York  City,  223. 

machines,  186. 

gasolene  gas,  188,  189,  190. 

illuminants,  13,  14,  92,  190,  191,  192. 

lighting,  data  on,  15. 

natural  gas,  83. 

Country  houses,  lighting  of,  179. 
"  Cromartie  "  gas  lamps,  Sugg's,  122. 

D. 

Dangers   connected  with  gas  distribu- 
tion, 246. 
gas   fixtures,  250. 
gas  piping  in  houses,  249. 
manufacture  of  gas,  246. 
use  and  management  of  gas,  252. 
Dangers  of  fire,  204,  230,  256. 
gas  leaks,  5,  204. 
illuminating  gas,  258. 
water  gas,  237. 
Dangers  to  public  health  from  gas,  237, 

256. 

Day  consumption  of  gas,  2,  204. 
Denver  Gas  Company,  rules  of,  68. 
Detroit    Heating    and    Lighting    Com- 
pany, rules  for  gas  piping  of,  95. 
Development  and  progress  of   gas  in- 
dustry, 263. 

of  gas  lighting  hi  New  York,  263. 
Devices,  for  lighting,  142. 

self  lighting,   for  gas,  124,  177,  210, 

255. 
Diameters  of  gas  mains  and  services  for 

acetylene  gas,  97. 

Diaphragm  pressure  regulators,  131. 
Discharge  of  gas  pipes,  45,  47. 
Distribution  lines,  sizes  of,  29. 
Distribution  of  gas,  28,  238,  246. 

system  of  gas,  250. 
District  of  Columbia,  gas  rules  of,  64. 
Don'ts  for  gas  consumers,  219. 
Dutch  oven,  274. 
Dwelling-house   fires,   due  to  defective 

lighting  apparatus,  212. 
Dynamo  run  by  kerosene,  gasolene  or 

steam  engine,  187. 
water  power,  187. 

E. 

East    River    Gas    Company,    organiza- 
tion of,  268. 

Economy  in  use  of  gas,  4. 
Edison     electric     incandescent     lamps, 

advent  of,  270. 

Efficiency  of  gas  mantles,  272. 
Electric  arc  lamps,  198,  270. 
gas-lighting  fittings,  235. 
illumination,  180,  187. 
lamps,  latest  inventions  in,  15. 
lighting,  advantages  of,  187. 


298 


Index 


Electric  lighting,  cost  of  14,  190,  192. 

plant  187,  188. 
Electricity  or  gas?  4,  273. 
Engineer,  illuminating,  110,  173. 
English  pressure  regulator,  131. 
Equitable  Gas  Light  Company  started, 

268. 

Era  of  gas,  199. 
Escape    of   gas,  5,  204,  214,  230,  235, 

246,  247,  253,  256. 
European  methods  of  testing  gas  pipe 

systems,  106. 
Exhaust    flues    for    regenerative     and 

ventilating  gas  burners,  212. 
Exhibitions,  gas,  205,  231. 
Explosive  properties  of  gas  mixed  with 

air,  6,  230,  245,  247. 
Extension  lamps,  176. 


Filament,  carbon,  180. 

Fires  caused  by  gas  escapes,  258. 

danger  of,  204,  236. 

due  to  defective  lighting  apparatus, 

212. 

Fireplace  heaters,  gas,  205,  207. 
Fire  statistics,  6,  236. 
Fish-tail  burner,  113. 
Fitters,  gas,  205,  207. 
Fittings,  acetylene  gas,  98. 

black,  26. 

British  regulations  for,  78. 

defective,  27,  215. 

electric  gas  lighting,  235. 

galvanized,  26. 

gas,  26,  38,  41,  204,  230,  255. 

malleable  iron,  26. 

regulation     of     Boston     Board     of 
Health,  62. 

regulation  of  Building  Commissioner, 
62. 

regulations  of  District  of  Columbia,  64. 
Fixtures,  advice  as  to  type,    142,  145, 
170. 

care  and  use  of,  230,  255. 

combination,  235. 

connections  for  heating  and  cooking, 
252. 

defective  gas,  145,  185,  234. 

drops,  174. 

for    various    rooms,    173,    174,    175, 
176,  177. 

hanging  of  gas,  144,  171. 

in  hotels  and  lodging  houses,  231. 

locating  gas,  172,  173,  235. 

location  of  gas,  212. 

manufacture  of  gas,  142. 

portable  gas,  146. 

rules  regarding  gas,  23,  30,  108,  142, 
146,  147. 

selection  of,  142,  145. 


Fixtures,  (Cont.) 

side,  172,  173. 

test  of,  250. 

tightly-jointed,  5. 

Flames,  111,  126,  201,  209,  213,  216. 
Flashpoint,  of  kerosene,  183. 
Float  governors,  134. 
Flow  of  gas  through  pipes,  44,  77,  97. 
Flues,  exhaust,  for  gas  burners,  212. 
Formula  for  acetylene  gas  piping,  98. 

flow  of  gas  through  pipes,  44,  97. 
Frost,  protection  of  gas  services  against, 

24,  232,  253. 
Fuel,  gas  as  a,  1,  2,  271,  273,  275,  278. 

wood  as,  266,  273. 
Fullford  regenerative  lamp,  121. 
Fulton  Municipal  Gas  Light  Company, 

forming  of,  269. 
Furnace  burning  gas,  278. 

G. 
Gas  accidents,  214,  229,  235,  251. 

acetylene,  1,  180,  242. 

air,  1,  87. 

anniversary  of  use  of,  2. 

apparatus,  204. 

appliances,  exhibition  of,  222. 

for  heating,  205,  222. 

artificial,  1. 

as  a  fuel,  271,  273,  275,  278. 

as  an  illuminant,  advantages  of,  12. 

asphyxiation,  5,  213,  230,  245. 

bills,  18,  161,  201,  202,  211,  218. 

brackets,  swinging,  212. 

burners  (see  Burner). 

calorific  power  of,  215,  224,  227,  272. 

candlepower  of,  217,  224,  225,  269. 

carbonic  oxide  in,  229. 

causing  theatre  fires,  7. 

chemical  analysis  of  natural,  82. 

circulation  system,  28. 

city,  190. 

coal,  1,  239,  267. 

commercial  use  of,  219. 

companies'  inspectors,  270. 

rules,  regulations  and  tables,  44. 

company,  consolidation  and  forming 

of  Brooklyn  Union,  269. 
forming  of  Consolidated  and  New 
Amsterdam,  268. 
Williamsburg,  269. 
organization  of  Harlem  and  Met- 
ropolitan, 267. 

starting  of  Central,  Knickerbocker 
and  Northern,  268. 

complaints,  162,  200,  214. 

consumers  and  gas  companies,  rela- 
tions between,  198. 
hints  and  instructions  to,  207,  236. 

consumption,  2,  131,  135,  202. 

cooking  by,  16,  17,  177,  178. 


Index 


299 


Gas,  (Cord.} 

cooking  stoves  and  ranges,  205,  219. 

separate  riser  for,  49. 
cost  of,  4,  13,  217,  222,  266,  267,  268. 

for  heating  water,  18,  222. 

in  London,  224. 
New  York,  223. 

manufacturing,  222. 
danger  from  fire  in  use  of,  6,  236. 

of  water,  237. 

to  public  health  in  use  of,  5,  6,  236, 

237,  252. 

distillation  of,  from  resin,  265. 
distribution  of,  28,  238. 
early     experiments     with,     in     New 

York,  265. 

economy  in  use  of,  4. 
engine,  20,  72,  77,  205,  219,  231,  245, 

246,  247. 

enriched  with  naphtha,  267. 
era  of,  199. 
escapes,  5,  214,   230,  235,  246,  247, 

253,  256. 

examiners  officially  appointed,  269. 
exhibitions,  205,  231. 
explosions,  6,  245,  247. 
fireplace  heater,  178,  205,  207. 

statistics  concerning,  6. 
first  New  York  residence  illuminated 

by,  265. 
fitters,  22,  203,  205,  207. 

cement,  use  of,  27. 

hints  and  instructions  to,  75. 
fittings  (see  Fittings), 
fixtures  (see  Fixtures), 
flames,  irregular,  126,  216. 
flow  of,  through  pipes,  44,  45,  46,  47, 

77,  97. 
for  cooking,  16,  17,  177, 178,  205,  273. 

heating  purposes,  16,  275. 

light,    heat    and    power    purposes, 
advantages  of,  1, 2, 16, 82, 205, 275. 

power  purposes,  1,  2,  16,  278. 

street  lighting,  introduction  of,  269. 
from  petroleum,  244. 
fuel,  1,  2. 

furnace  burning,  278. 
globe  holders,  203. 
globes,  137,  201,  203. 
governor  (see  Governors), 
heating  appliances,  204. 

power  of,  17,  215,  224,  227,  272. 

stoves,  205,  275,  276. 
household  use  of,  199. 
illuminating,  1,  2,  82. 

power  of  natural,  82. 
impurities  in,  244. 
industry,   progress  and  development 

of,  263. 

Siemens  on  progress  of,  271. 
instructions  in  use  of,  253. 


Gas,  (Con*.) 
jets,  113. 

keys,  144,  231,  234,  251. 
kinds  of,  239. 
lamps  (see  Lamps), 
laundry  irons,  42,  219,  274. 
leak  indicator,  105. 

Hartenfels,  248. 

leaks,  5,  104,  204,  208,  209,  212,  230, 
234,  246,  249,  250,  256,  260,  262. 
Light  Company,  organization  of, 

Brooklyn,  269. 

East  River,  268. 

Equitable,  268. 

Fulton  Municipal,  269. 

Manhattan,  266. 

Mutual,  267. 

Nassau,  269. 

New  York,  265. 

Standard,  268. 
light  illumination,  108,  109. 
lighting,  acetylene,  97,  188,  189. 

advantages,  of,  199. 

bibliography  of,  263. 

development  of,  in  New  York,  263. 

gasolene,  87,  183. 

improvements  in,  271. 

injurious  effects  upon  health  and 
comfort,  201. 

in  New  York  theatres,  226. 

introduction  in  different  cities,  265. 
in  England,  265. 

precautions  to  render  safe,  212,  254. 

Prof.  Bunte  on  incandescent,  273. 

statistics,  268,  269. 
logs,  19,  177,  205,  219. 
machines,  acetylene,  185. 

cost  of,  186. 

gasolene,  87. 
mains,  97,   135,  214,  218,  247,  258, 

265,  266. 

manufacture,  199. 
manufactured,  1,  267. 
meters,    10,    30,    40,    148,    205,    246. 

(see  also  Meters), 
meter  stories,  148,  164. 
mixed  with  air,  explosive,  230. 
natural,  1,  16,  239. 
objections  to,  5,  6. 
oil,  1,  180,  244. 
olefiant,  244. 
Gaseous  fuel,  18,  219,  274. 

illuminants,  111. 
Gasolene  machine  gas,  183,  190. 
Gasolene,  87,  180,  183,  190,  241. 
cost  of,  188,  189. 
engine,  187. 
fuel,  275. 
gas,  184,  190. 

lighting,  183. 
generators,  184. 


300 


Index 


Gasolene  gas,  (Cord.) 
specifications  for,  87. 
gasoliers,  146,  266. 
gas  outlets  (see  Outlet), 
pipes  (see  Pipes), 
piping  (see  Piping), 
popular  fallacies  about,  8,  222. 
pressure,  9,    10,    126,   209,    (see   also 
Pressure) . 

artificially      increased     in     incan- 
descent lamps,  273. 

causes  of  insufficient,  215. 

fluctuation  of,  127,  135. 

reduction  of,  235. 

regulation  of,   126,   128,   129,   130, 
136,  203. 

regulators  (see  Governors), 
quality  of,  8,  148,  222,  269. 
ranges,  16,  207,  274,  (see  also  Range). 

outlets,  for,  177. 

versus  coal  ranges,  275. 
risers,  29,  37,  39,  207. 
rock,  1. 
safeguards  against  danger  from,  212, 

254. 

safer  than  gasolene  or  kerosene,  275. 
service  pipes,  23,  41,  207,  246,  253. 
services  and  water  services  compared, 
225. 

frozen,  253. 
shades,  203. 

Holophane,  210,  273. 
shutting  off,  at  the  meter,  252. 
specific  gravity  of,  218. 
statistics     regarding     production     of 

natural,  83. 
stoves,  16,  177,  205. 

outlets  for,  177. 
supply,  204,  222. 
tables  of  composition  of  coal,  natural 

and  water,  239,  240,  241. 
testing,  225,  269. 
tips,  108,  114. 
tubing,  143,  250, 

use  of,  for  heating  laundry  irons,  19, 
205. 

natural,  82. 
versus  electricity,  4,  273. 

kerosene  oil,  13. 

vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  by,  9. 
warming  stoves,  178. 
wasteful  use  of,  127,  203. 
water,  1,  241. 

heaters,  178,  207,  217. 

separate  risers  for,  48. 
wells,  82. 
wood,  244. 
works,  199. 

Gauges,  mercury  glass,  102. 
pressure,  27,  126. 
spring,  27. 


Generators,  acetylene,  185. 

approved,  186. 

gasolene,  184. 

Germania  Argand  burners,  120. 
Glass  globes,  204,  210,  212. 

shades,  137. 
Gleason  Argand  burner,  119. 

Beacon  lamp,  120. 

Globe  holders,  108,  139,  140,  204,  210. 
Globes,  108,  137,  138,  139. 

breakage  of  gas,  201. 

cleaning  of,  204. 

defects  of  gas,  140. 

glass,  204,  210,  212. 

Holophane,  210,  273. 

material  for,  139. 
Gordon  Mitchell  high-power  gas  lamp, 

119. 
Governor  burners,  117,  119,   130,   132, 

133,  134,  204. 
Governors,  126,  130,  131,  209. 

automatic  gas,  130,  131. 

float,  134. 

rules  for  use  of  gas,  136. 

station,  130. 
Gregory  incandescent  lamps,  120. 

mica  check  burner,  29. 
Grimston  regenerative  lamps,  121. 

H. 

Hall  lamps,  174. 
Harlem  Gas  Company,  organization  of, 

267. 

Heater,  gas  water,  178,  207,  219. 
Heat  from  gaseous  fuel,  cost  of,  17. 
Heating     and     cooking    fixtures,     con- 
nections for,  252. 

appliances,  gas,  204,  205. 

gas,  275. 

laundry  irons   by  gas,   19,   177,  205, 
274. 

power  of  gas,  227. 

power  of  water  gas,  1. 

rooms  by  means  of  gas  stoves,  19,  205. 

stoves,  gas,  275. 

stoves,  wall,  276. 

water,  apparatus  for,  274. 

water  by  means  of  gaseous  fuel,  18. 

205. 
Heat  units  in  coal,  17. 

gas,  17,  227. 
Hefner  lamps,  191. 
High-power  burners,  120. 

gas  lamps,  119,  120. 
Hints  for  gas  consumers,  207,  221. 

to  gas  fitters,  75. 
Historical    notes   on   development   and 

progress  of  gas  industry,  263. 
Holders,  globe,  108,  139,  204. 

defects  of,  140. 
Holophane  globes,  210,  273. 


Index 


301 


Hose,  metallic,  212. 

rubber,  212,  235. 
House  gas  pipes,  41,  42,  234. 
Household  uses  of  gas,  219. 
House  piping  specifications  of  Consoli- 
dated Gas  Co.  of  N.  Y.,  50. 

of  United  Gas  Impr.   Co.   of  Phila- 
delphia, 57. 
Hudson  County  Gas  Light   Company, 

N.  J.,  rules  of,  65. 

Hydraulic  gasolier,  water  joint  in,  204. 
Hydrocarbons,  180. 
Hydrogen,  carburetted,  244. 

gas,  process  of  making,  267. 

sulphuretted,  244. 

I. 

Illuminants,  cost  of  various,  190,  191, 

192. 

gaseous,  12,  111,  180. 
liquid,  111,  180. 
solid,  111,  180. 
Illuminating  engineer,  110,  143. 

gas,  1,  2,  4,  230,  258. 
Illumination,   artificial,    108,   142,    179, 

234. 

by  electricity,  12,  180. 
candle,  111/180,  264. 
gas,  1,  2,  12,  108,  124,  180,  265,  272. 
light  house,  120. 
maximum,  200. 
natural  gas,  82. 

of  interiors,  108,  142,  170,  264. 
oil  lamp,  111,  180,  181. 
principles  of  gas,  109. 
products  of,  4,  245. 
street,  124. 

Improvements  in  gas  lighting,  271. 
Impurities  in  gas,  244. 
Incandescent  alcohol  lamps,  183. 
burner,  Welsbach,  123. 
electric  lamps,  2,  180,  270. 
gas  burners,  4,  113,  119,  123. 
lamp,  184,  204,  226,  271,  273. 
lighting,  226,  271,  273. 
lighting  — 

art  of,  190,  192. 
cost  of,  14. 
mantle  burners,  3,  123,  175,  180,  209, 

210,  227. 

Index,  gas  meter,  157,  202,  210. 
Indicator  gas  leak  — 
Hartenfels',  248. 
Joslin,  105. 
Muchall,  105. 

Industry,  Dr.  Siemens  on  gas,  271. 
Inspection  of  gas  fixtures,  254. 

piping  and  fitting  in  cities,  270. 
Inspector  of  gas  meters,  206. 

plumbing,     report    of,    Washington, 
B.C.,  232. 


Instructions  to  gas  consumers,  236,  253. 

distribution  employees,  76. 

fitters,  75. 

Insurance    Companies'   views   concern- 
ing gas,  6. 

Interior  illumination,  170,  217. 
Introduction    of    gas    illumination    in 

New  York  house,  first,  265. 
Inventor  of  first  gas  meter,  148. 

gas  lighting,  2. 
Inverted  gas  burners,  3,  113,  124,  173. 

incandescent  gas  lamps,  124,  184,  273. 

J. 

Jahn's  safety  regulator  burner,  118. 
Jet  burners,  113,  116. 
Jets,  gas,  113. 
Joints,  gas  tight,  26. 

screw,  38,  41. 

telescopic,  251. 
Joslin  gas-leak  indicator,  105. 
Jumping  gas  flames,  29,  216. 
Junkers'  gas  heating  stove,  275. 

K. 

Kern  incandescent  burner,  123. 
Kerosene  engine  for  running  dynamo, 

187. 

oil,  14,  180,  275. 
lamps,  182. 
versus  gas,  13. 
Keys,   gas,     144,    204,    231,    234,    251, 

"  all-round, "  204. 
Kitchen    gas    range,    separate    supply 

pipe  for,  207. 
Kitchens    of    apartment    houses,     gas 

ranges  in,  275. 
Knickerbocker  Gas  Co.  started,  268. 

L. 

Lamp,  acetylene,  180,  186. 
bracket,  146. 
Brilliant,  121. 
Brown,  121. 
Clamond,  123. 
drop,  146. 

electric  incandescent,  2,  180,  198. 
extension,  176. 
first  arc,  270. 

incandescent,  270. 
gas,  119,  198. 
hall,  174. 
Hefner,  191. 

high-power  gas,  119,  120. 
incandescent  alcohol,  183. 

gas  mantle,  180. 
kerosene,  182. 
Lindsay,  123. 
moderator,  182. 
Nernst,  192. 
oil,  13,  181,  182,  198. 


302 


Index 


Lamp,  (Con/.) 

osmium,  192. 

portable,  180,  182,  186,  210,  251. 

regenerative,  121,  204. 

safety,  6. 

Shaw  reflector,  120. 

suction,  182. 

Sugg's  "Cromartie"  gas,  122. 

Tantalum,  192. 

Tungsten,  192. 

Welsbach,  271,  272. 

wicks,  181. 

Wolfram,  192. 
Lamps,  advantages  of,  182. 

ancient,  181. 

disadvantages  of,  146. 

pressure,  182. 

requirements  of  oil,  182. 
Laundry  iron  heaters,  19,  177,  213,  219. 
Lava  tips,  115. 

Laying  of  gas  service  pipes,  24. 
Leakage  gas,  5,  104,  204,  209,  212,  230, 

234,  246,  250,  256,  257,  260,  262. 
Leak  indicator  for  gas,  105. 

Hartenfels'  gas,  248. 
Leaks  — 

cost  of,  208. 

detection  of,  209,  212,  230,  234,  246, 

250,  256. 

Length  of  gas  piping,     greatest     allow- 
able, 36,  94,  96. 
Leoni  burner,  116. 
Lewis  burner,  123. 
Light,  absorption  of ,  by  glass  globes,  138. 

artificial,  179. 

flickering  of,  201. 

loss  of,  138,  215. 
Lighting  — 

acetylene,  for  towns,  186,  244. 

and  Heating  Committee,  report  of 
National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, 256. 

bibliography  on  gas,  263. 

devices,  142. 

electric,  187. 

gas,  see  Illumination  by  gas. 

gasolene  gas,  183. 

of  county  houses,  179,  188. 

first  New  York  theatre  by  gas,  265. 

interiors,  108,  142,  170,  264. 

isolated  buildings,  241. 

London  theatres,  by  gas,  265. 

Pall  Mall,  London,  by  gas  lamps,  265. 

railroad  cars,  3,  124. 

rooms  (see  Fixtures  for  various  rooms, 
or  interiors). 

streets,  204,  263,  264,  269. 

Prof.  Bunte  on  incandescent  gas,  271. 

recent  modes  of,  198. 
Lindsay  lamps,  123. 
Liquid  illuminants,  111. 


Location  of  gas  fixtures,  212. 

meters,  208,  213. 

outlets,  22. 

Logs,  gas,  19,  177,  205,  219. 
London  burner,  Sugg's,  179. 
Loss  of  light,  138,  215. 
Luminous  flame,  nature  of.  111. 
Lungren  regenerative  lamp,  121. 

M. 

Machines    for    producing    carburetted 

air-gas,  184. 
Mains,  97,  233,  247,  248,  249,  258. 

first  gas,  in  New  York,  265. 

fluctuations  of  pressure  in  street,  135. 

tightness  of  gas.  233,  248,  258. 
Management  of  gas,  230. 
Manhattan    Gas    Light    Company    in- 
corporated, 266. 

gas  piping  rules  of,  49. 
Mantle  burners,  3,  180. 

nature  of  the  incandescent,  272. 
Mantles,  cotton,  123. 

manufacture  of,  227,  228,  272. 

self-lighting,  124. 
Manufactured  gas,  1. 
Manufacture    of    acetylene    gas    from 
calcium,  carbide,  1,  242. 

gas  fixtures,  142. 

from  coal,  199,  246,  267. 
meters,  10. 

Welsbach  burners,  272. 
Matches,  use  of,  213,  264,  265. 
Maximum  illumination,  200. 

length  of  gas  pipes,  36,  94,  96. 

number  of  burners  for  different  sizes 

of  pipes,  36,  94,  96. 
Meter  — 

accidents  due  to  use  of  prepayment, 

'   253. 

accuracy  of  gas,  158. 

acetylene  gas,  154. 

capacity,  76,  78. 

compensating,  152. 

complaints,  159. 

connections  for,  155,  249. 

dry,  149,  150,  151. 

exhibition,  204. 

frozen  gas,  253. 

gas,  10,  30,  40,  41,  148,  246,  252. 

index,  157,  202,  210. 

inspectors,  206. 

invention  of  the  first  gas,  148. 

location  of,  38,  156,  207,  208,  213. 

popular  fallacies  about  gas,  162,  202. 

prejudices  against  gas,  202. 

prepayment,  153. 

reading  the,  157,  202. 

requirements  of  gas,  154. 

rotary  gas,  152. 

shutting  off  gas  at  the,  252. 


Index 


303 


Meter,  (Cant.) 
sizes  of,  38,  154. 
station  gas,  153. 
stories,  148,  164. 
tightness  of  gas,  249. 
vagaries  of  gas,  201. 
wet,  149,  151. 

Meteor  regenerative  gas  lamp,  121. 
Metropolitan  Gas  Company  organized, 

267. 
Milwaukee   building    department   rules 

on  gas,  66. 
Mineral  oil,  6. 
Mixture   of   air  and    illuminating  gas, 

explosive,  230. 
Moderator  oil  lamps,  182. 
Morey  incandescent  gas  burner. 
Muchall  gas-leak  indicator,  105. 

regenerative  gas  lamp,  121. 
Multiple  flat-flame  burner,  113,  120. 
Municipal  building  regulations  on  gas, 

34. 
Murdock,    Thomas,    inventor    of     gas 

lighting,  2. 

Mutual  Gas  Light  Company,   incorpo- 
rated, 267. 

N. 

Naphtha,  183. 

Nassau  Gas  Light  Company,   incorpo- 
ration of,  209. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
Committee   on  lighting  and  heat- 
ing, report  of,  250. 
Requirements  for   a  standard   acety- 
lene generator,  194. 
Rules  for  piping  for  acetylene  gas,  196. 
Rules  for  safe  use  of  gas  machines,  193. 
Natural  gas,  1,  16,  81,  82,  239. 
chemical  analyses  of,  82. 
discovery  of,  81. 
high  pressure  of,  82. 
illuminating  power  of,  82. 
piping  for,  81,  83. 
production,  statistics  of,  83. 
composition  of,  239. 
Nernst  lamp,  192, 

New  Amsterdam  Gas  Company,  form- 
ing of,  268. 

New    York    Gas    Light    Company,    in- 
corporation of,  265. 
Northern  Gas  Company  started,  268. 
Number    of    burners,    maximum,    with 
given  size  of  pipe,  36,  94,  96. 

O. 

Oil.  burning  of.  180. 
gas,  180,  244. 
kerosene,  13,  180,  275. 
lamps,  13,  81,  111,  181,  182,  198,  264. 
regions,  petroleum,  81. 


Oil,  (Cant.) 

wells  at  Baku,  81. 
Oils,  mineral,  vegetable  and  other,  6, 

180,  182. 
Olefiant  gas,  244. 
Ordinances  on  street  lighting  in  New 

York,  early,  263. 
Osmium  lamp,  192. 
Outlets,  for  gas  stoves  and  ranges,  177. 

gas,  22,  29,  43,  171,  173. 

plans  for  gas,  171. 

P. 

Paraffin  candles,  180. 
Pendants,  142,  146,  251. 
People's  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company 
of  Chicago,  rules  for  size  of  pipe 
for  natural  gas,  86. 
Petroleum,  crude,  83. 

gas,  244. 

oil  regions,  81. 
Pettenkofer,  Prof.,  on  gas  escapes  into 

houses,  247. 
Photometric  test,  272. 
Pipe  connections,  lead,  155. 
Pipes,  arrangement  of  gas,  in  buildings, 
22,  33,  42. 

composition,  26. 

copper,  26. 

corrosion  of  service,  249. 

fastenings  for  gas,  42. 

flow  of  gas  through,  44,  45,  46,  47,  97. 

for  cooking  ranges,  37. 

for  gas  engines,  72. 

gas,  23,  41,  55. 

installation  of  gas,  5,  31. 

laying  of  service,  24. 

material  for  gas,  26. 

non-conducting  covering  for  gas,  24. 

protected  against  frost,  24. 

screw-jointed,  wrought  iron  gas,  23. 

sizes  of  gas,  36,  37,  42,  201. 

steel,  26. 

stoppages  in,  27. 
Piping  — 

acetylene  gas,  97,  99,  101,  186. 

air  gas,  81. 

cleaning  of  gas,  209. 

dangers  connected  with  gas,  249. 

defective  gas,  215. 

gas,  rules  and  regulations  for,  203,205. 

inspection  of  gas,  230,  254,  270. 

natural  gas,  81,  83. 

regulations  for  theatres  and  places  of 
assembly,  56. 

requirements  for  gas,  36. 

rust  in  gas,  27,  209. 

size  of  gas,  36,  37,  42,  201. 

specifications  for  gas,  41,  186,  207. 

testing  of  gas,  38,  43,  102,  103,  105, 
106,  107,  249,  270. 


304 


Index 


Pittsburg,     fire     marshal's     rules     for 
piping  for  natural  gas,  83. 

Underwriters '  rules  for  use  of  natural 

gas,  85. 

Plans,  gas  outlet,  171. 
Plumbing     inspector     of    Washington, 

D.  C.,  report  of,  282. 
Portable  lamps,  186,  210,  251. 
Power,  calorific,  of  gas,  272. 

illuminating,  272. 

Practical  hints  for  gas  consumers,  207. 
Precautions  in  use  of  gas,  212. 
Precision  burner,  Siemens,  119. 
Prejudices  against  gas,  1,  222. 
Prepayment   meters,  accidents  due    to 

use  of,  253. 
Pressure,  automatic  control  of,  130. 

causes  of  insufficient,  215. 

control  of,  128,  129. 

evils  of  high  gas,  127. 

fluctuations  of,  127,  135. 

gas,  9,  10,  126,  209. 

gauges,  27,  126. 

increased  artificially  in  incandescent 
lamps,  273. 

lamps,  high,  182. 

of  natural  gas,  82. 

reducing  appliances,  201. 

reduction  of  gas,  235. 

regulators,   108,   126,   130,   131,   136, 

203,  209,  252. 
rules  for  use  of,  136. 
Price  of  gas,  217,  222,  266,  267,  268. 
Principles  of  gas  illumination,  109. 
Process  of  making  gasoline  gas,  184. 

hydrogen  gas,  Tessie  de  Motey,  267. 

Wilkinson,  gas,  268. 
Production  of  carburetted  air  gas,  184. 

natural  gas,  statistics  on,  83. 
Products  of  combustion  of  illuminating 

gas,  4,  245. 

Prof.  Bunte  on  incandescent  gas  light- 
ing, 271. 

method  of  testing  gas  mains,  248. 

Junkers 'gas  heating  stove,  275. 
Progress  and  development  of  the  gas 

industry,  263. 
Protection  of  pipes  against  frost,  24. 

service  pipes  against  corrosion,  249. 
Purifying  gas,  244. 

Q. 
Qualified   gas   fitters,    employment   of, 

203. 
Quality  of  gas,  8,  148,  222,  269. 

R. 

Ranges,  coal,  274. 

gas,  207,  274. 

Reading  of  meter  index,  202,  210. 
Red  lead  for  joints,  use  of,  26. 


Reflector  lamps,  120. 
Reflectors,  203,  210,  212. 
Regenerative  gas  burners,  113,  120,  121, 

125,  271. 
lamps,  121,  204. 

Regulating  burners,  automatic,  132. 
Regulation  of  gas  pressure,  126,  136. 
Regulations  for  gas  piping  for  theatres 

and  places  of  assembly,  56. 
municipal  building,  34. 
rules,  tables  and  regulations  of  gas 

companies,  44,  270. 
Regulators,      American      mercury-seal, 

131. 

dry  and  wet,  130. 
English  pressure,  131,  209. 
Report  of  City  Club  on  gas  leakage,  256. 
Committee  on  lighting  and  heating, 
National    Board    of    Underwriters, 
256. 

Inspector  of  plumbing  of  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  232. 

Requirements    of    National    Board    of 
Fire  Underwriters  as  to  acetylene 
generators,  194. 
gas  machines,  192. 
use  of  acetylene  gas,  209. 
Risers,   additional,   for  building  exten- 
sions or  alterations,  209. 
for  gas  water  heater,  laundry  irons, 

ranges,  etc.,  42. 
gas,  20,  37,  39,  207. 

sizes  of,  29,  37. 
stoppage  of  gas,  226. 
Rock  gas,  1. 
Rotary  gas  meter,  152. 
Round-flame  burners,  113,  118,  120. 
Rules  for  gas  piping,  44,  203,  205. 
Boston  Board  of  Health  and  Building 

Commissioner,  62. 
Gas  Light  Company,  61. 
British,  78. 

Bureau  of  Buildings,  New  York,  53. 
Chicago  People's  Gas  Light  and  Coke 

Company,  71. 

Cincinnati  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Com- 
pany, 69. 
Denver  Consolidated  Gas  Company, 

68. 

District  of  Columbia,  64. 
for  acetylene  gas,  National  Board  of 

Fire  Underwriters,  101. 
City  of  Munich,  80. 
gasolene    gas,    Detroit    Heating    and 

Lighting  Company,  95. 
Springfield  Gas  Machine  Company, 

91. 

natural  gas,    Fire    Marshal   of  Pitts- 
burg,  83. 

People's     Gas     Light     and     Coke 
Company  of  Chicago,  86. 


Index 


305 


Rules  for  Natural  Gas,  (Cont.J 

Pittsburg     Board     of    Underwriters, 

85. 
Rules   of    Hudson    County    Gas    Light 

Company,  65. 

Milwaukee  Building  Department,  66. 
Old    Manhattan     Gas    Company    of 

New  York,  4. 

Rules  regarding  gas  fixtures,  23. 
use  of  pressure  regulators,  136. 
tables,   and   regulations  of  gas  com- 
panies, 44  (see  also  Rules  for  gas 
piping.) 

S. 
Safeguards    against    danger   from    gas, 

254. 

Safety  burners,   117. 
lamp,  6. 
matches,  213. 
Schilling's    table    for    discharge   of   gas 

pipes,  47. 

Schiilke  regenerative  lamps,.  121. 
Screw-regulating  burner,  Sugg's,  132. 
Self-lighting  devices,  124,  210,  255. 
Separate    risers    for    gas    cooking    and 

heating  fixtures,  42,  207. 
Service  pipes,  23,  24,  25,  97,  246,  249, 

253  (see  also  Pipes). 
Sewer  gas,  effects  of  gas  leaks  attributed 

to,  249. 
Shades,  212. 

Shaw  reflector  lamps,  120. 
Show  room  for  gas  appliances,  205. 
Shutting  off  gas  at  the  meter,  252. 
Siemens,  Dr.,  on  gas  industry,  271. 
precision  burner,  119. 
regenerative  burner,  121,  271. 
Silber  burners,  116,  119,  129. 
Single- jet  burner,  113. 
Size  of  pipes  for  gas  engines,  72. 
meters,  76,  78,  154. 
piping  for  acetylene  lighting,  100. 
service  pipes,  25. 
Monnier's  French  table  for,  80. 
Sizes  of  gas  pipes,  29. 
Slit-union  burner,  113. 
Specifications  — 

for  gasolene  gas  lighting,  87. 
gas  piping,  41,  207. 
for  piping  for  acetylene  gas,  186. 
of  Consolidated  Gas  Company  of  New 

York,  50. 
Springfield  Gas  Machine  Company, 

91. 

United     Gas    Improvement    Com- 
pany of  Philadelphia,  57. 
Specific  gravity  of  gas,  132,  218. 
Spermaceti  candles,  180. 
Springfield     gas     Machine     Company, 
specifications,  91. 


Standard  Gas  Light  Company,  organi- 
zation of,  268. 
Station  governor,  130. 

meter,  153. 

Stations,  gas  testing,  225. 
Statistics  of  Board  of  Gas  and  Electric 
Light     Commissioners    of     Massa- 
chusetts, 254. 
gas  accidents,  235. 
lighting,  268,  269. 
Stearine  candles,  180. 
Steatite  burner  tips,  115. 
Stop  cocks,  round-way,  27. 
Stoppage  of  gas  risers,  226. 
Stoves,  gas  warming,  16,  19. 
Street      illumination     with     Welsbach 

lamps,  124. 
lamps,  Bray's  high  power,  120. 

posts,  early  public,  in  New  York, 

263. 
lamps,  present  and  past  method  of 

lighting,  263,  266. 
lighting,  2,  263,  264,  266,  268. 
introduction  of  gas  for,  269. 
mains,   escape   of    gas  from  broken, 

233. 

Suction  lamps,  182. 
Sugg's  burners,  115,  116,  119,  120,  122, 

129,  132. 

Cromartie  gas  lamps,  122. 
improved  Argand  burner,  119. 
regenerative  lamps,  121. 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  gas,  244. 
Supervision    of    gas    fitting    work    by 

City  Departments,  270. 
fixtures,  254. 
piping,  official,  230,  254. 
Supply  of  gas,  facts  about  the,  222. 
Swinging  gas  brackets,  212. 


T. 


regu- 


Tables  from  City  of  Munich 

lations,  80- 

of  and  rules  for  gas  fittings,  Chicago 
People's    Gas    Light    and    Coke 
Company,  71. 
capacities  of  gas  meters,  49,  56,  78, 

159. 

composition  of  coal  gas,  240. 
natural  gas,  239. 
water  gas,  241. 
consumption  of  gas  in  burners,  128, 

129. 

cost  of  illumination,  192. 
discharge  of  gas  pipes,  45,  48,  49. 
gas  burning  hours  per  year,  211. 
pipes,  Old  Manhattan  Gas  Com- 
pany's, 49. 
piping  for  acetylene  gas,  99,  100, 

101. 
sizes  of  service  pipes,  25,  80. 


306 


Index 


Table-top  burner,  Sugg's,  115,  116. 

Taj  high-power  gas  lamps,  120. 

Tallow  candles,  180,  181. 

Tantalum  lamp,  192. 

Tapping  of  gas  mains,  247,  249. 

Taps,  old  fashioned,  all-around  gas,  145. 

Tees,  use  of  plugged,  29. 

Tessie    de    Motey   process   for   making 

hydrogen  gas,  267. 
Test  burner,  161. 
flash  point,  183. 
for  impurities  in  gas,  244. 
protometric,  272. 
of  fixtures,  144,  145,  251. 
gas  meters,  158,  159,  161. 
governor  burners,  134. 
piping  by  gas  companies,  270. 

for  acetylene  gas,  98. 
Testing  candlepower  of  gas,  225. 

gas  pipes,  38,  43,  102,  103,  203,  208, 

249. 

European  method,  106. 
with  air  pressure,  102. 
stations,  gas,  225. 
tightness  of  gas  mains,  248. 
Thorp  regenerative  gas  lamp,  121. 
Tightness  of  gas  governors,  252. 
mains,  248. 
piping,  208. 
stoves,  249. 
Tips,  gas,  108,  111,  115. 

lava,   steatite,    adamas   and  enamel, 

115. 

Tubing,  rubber  gas,  143,  256. 
Tungsten  lamp,  192. 
Twin  flat-flame  gas  burner,  120. 

U. 

Underwriter    rules    for     instalment    of 

gasoline  machines,  185. 
Union-jet  burner,  113,  116. 
Upright  incandescent  burner,  113. 
Use  and  management  of  gas,  252,  273. 
of  gas  as  a  fuel,  273. 

commercial,  219. 

dangers  from  fire  in,  6. 

day,  204. 

economy  in,  4. 
Use  of  gaseous  fuel,  20. 
Use  of  gas  fixtures,  230,  255. 
Use  of  gas  for  cooking,  16,  17,  177,  178, 
205,  273. 

for  lighting,  205,  273. 

power  purposes,  1,  2,  16,  278. 

household,  179,  219. 

instructions  on  the,  203,  253. 

wasteful,  127. 
Use  of  natural  gas,  82,  85. 
oil  lamps,  264. 
plugged  tees  instead  of  elbows,  29. 


Use  of,  (Cont.) 

red  lead  in  gas  pipes  joints,  26. 
prepayment  meters,  accidents  due 

to,  253. 

pressure  regulators,  131,  203,  209. 
volumetric  governor  burners,  203. 

V. 

Vapor  of  condensation,  29. 
Variable  quality  of  gas,  8. 
Variation  of  discharge  of  gas  with 

specific  gravity,  48. 
Ventilating  gas  burners,  125. 

regenerative  gas  burners,  125. 
Vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  by  gas,  9, 

127. 
Volumetric  burners,  132,  133. 

use  of,  203. 

W. 

Wall  brackets,  108. 

Wall  gas-heating  stoves,  advantages  of, 

276,  277. 

Walthamston  high-power  lamp,  120. 
Waste  of  gas,  203. 
Water  gas,  1. 
Water  gas,  carburetted,  240. 

danger  of,  237. 

heating  power  of,  1 . 

tables  of  composition  of,  241. 
Water  heaters,  gas,  178,  207,  219. 

in  gas  meters,  216. 
Wax,  180. 
Wax  candles,  181. 
Wells,  gas,  82. 
Welsbach  incandescent  burner,  123. 

manufacture  of,  272. 

lamps,  128,  271,  272. 
Wenham  regenerative  lamp,  121. 
Westphahl  regenerative  lamp,  121. 
Wet  meter,  149. 
Wicks,  candle,  181. 

lamp,  181. 

trimming  of  candle,  264 
Williamsburg    Gas    Company,    forming 

of,  269. 
Wiring,  187. 
Wire  cages,  212. 

Wilkinson  process  of  gas  making,  268. 
Winsor  burner,  Sugg's,  129,  132. 
Wolffhugel,   Prof.,   on  gas  escapes  into 

houses,  247. 
Wolfram  lamp,  192. 
Wood  gas,  244. 
Wood  used  as  fuel,  273. 

Y. 

Yotto  incandescent  burner,  123. 
Young  America  burner,  117,  129. 


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